HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD 
PRESERVATION 


BY 
WILLIAM   V.   CRUESS 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  FOOD  TECHNOLOGY   (zYMOLOGY) 
UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   EXPERIMENT  STATION 


•Dfaro  fork 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1918 

All  rights  reserved 


i- 


COPYRIGHT,  1918 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  1918. 


PREFACE 

Since  early  historical  time  food  preservation  has  been 
second  only  in  importance  to  food  production.  Grapes 
and  other  fruits  were  dried  by  the  ancients  to  preserve 
them;  fruit  juices  were  fermented  to  make  wines  and 
vinegars;  cereals  and  vegetables  were  stored  to  protect 
them  against  moisture  and  decay;  olives  were  preserved 
by  salting;  and  meats  were  salted,  dried,  and  smoked. 
The  use  of  sugar  and  vinegar  in  preserving  fruits  and 
vegetables  came  later.  The  preservation  of  foods  by 
sterilization  in  sealed  containers  is  a  development  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and  dates  from  its  discovery  by  Nich- 
olas Appert  in  France  about  1800.  Cold  storage,  as  a 
means  of  preserving  all  perishable  products,  has,  during 
the  past  century,  developed  into  a  very  great  industry. 

Three  billion  cans  of  food,  valued  retail  at  $600,000,000, 
were  sold  in  the  United  States  in  1916.  The  meat  pack- 
ing and  cold  storage  industries  compare  favorably  with 
the  canning  industries  in  size.  The  wholesale  value  of 
the  raisin  crop  in  California  is  over  $10,000,000  an- 
nually. The  other  dried  fruit  industries  are  smaller  but 
their  aggregate  value  amounts  to  many  millions  of  dollars 
yearly  in  the  United  States.  From  this,  the  importance 
of  commercial  food  preservation  may  be  seen. 

Commercial  food  preservation  cares  for  the  bulk  of  the 
food  products  but  beside  the  food  so  preserved,  there 
are  many  millions  of  jars  and  cans  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, glasses  of  jellies,  jams,  and  marmalades  and  many 
thousands  of  hams  and  bacons  "  put  up/7  by  the  house- 
wife and  farmer.  Much  food  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted  is  saved  and  in  addition  a  varied  diet1  through- 
out the  year  at  low  cost  is  made  available  in  many  homes. 

v 

380396 


vi  PREFACE 

Usually  this  work  is  done  over  a  hot  kitchen  stove* 
during  the  rush  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable  season  and, 
added  to  other  household  duties,  becomes  a  heavy 
burden.  The  methods  are  empirical  and  by  "  rule  of 
thumb ";  consequently  they  are  not  well  understood 
and  not  especially  interesting. 

This  book  aims  to  tell  the  "  why  "  of  the  various 
methods  of  food  preservation,  to  present  labor  saving 
methods  and  to  give  simple  and  explicit  directions  that 
may  be  easily  followed.  When  the  principles  of  the 
various  methods  are  understood  the  directions  given 
can  be  modified  to  suit  changed  conditions  and  the  work 
will  prove  very  much  more  interesting  because  the  rea- 
sons for  the  various  steps  will  be  known. 

The  book  is  divided  into  three  sections,  namely: 
"  The  Theory  of  Food  Preservation,"  "  Methods  of 
Food  Preservation/7  and  "  Food  Preservation  Recipes." 
By  reading  the  first  two  sections,  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  an  understanding  of  the  general  application 
of  these  principles  will  be  obtained.  This  will  be  of  great 
assistance  in  intelligently  carrying  out  the  specific  direc- 
tions given  in  the  recipes  in  the  third  section. 

The  material  presented  is  designed  primarily  for  the 
housewife  and  farmer,  to  assist  them  in  preserving  sur- 
plus farm  products  for  their  own  use.  However,  in  many 
places,  the  food  products,  if  carefully  and  attractively 
prepared,  can  be  sold  at  a  good  profit,  in  this  way  af- 
fording an  extra  source  of  income.  Often  commercial 
factories  develop  from  such  small  beginnings. 

It  is  hoped  also  that  the  material  presented  will  be  of 
value  and  interest  to  domestic  science  teachers  and 
canning  demonstrators. 

The  aim  has  been  to  so  present  the  principles  and 
practices  of  preservation  of  food  in  the  home  that  the 
work  will  appear  more  fascinating  and  less  burdensome 
and  that  the  results  obtained  will  be  more  successful. 


PREFACE  vii 

1  he  author  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the 
many  valuable  and  helpful  suggestions  given  by  Professor 
F.  T.  Bioletti  during  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript 
for  this  book. 

W.  V.  CRUESS. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.     THEORY  OF  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

CHAPTER  I 

WHY  FOOD  SPOILS 

PAGE 

1.  Molds 3 

2.  Yeasts 5 

3.  Bacteria 6 

4.  Spoiling  of  Foods  by  Chemical  and  Physical  Changes ....  .   7 

CHAPTER  II 
WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING 

A.  TEMPORARY  PREVENTION  OF  SPOILING 9 

5.  Asepsis 9 

6.  Cold  Storage 9 

7.  Exclusion  of  Moisture 10 

8.  Use  of  Mild  Antiseptics 10 

9.  Pasteurization  as  a  Means  of  Temporary  Preservation. ...  11 

10.  Exclusion  of  Air 12 

B.  PERMANENT  PREVENTION  OF  SPOILING 12 

11.  Preservation  by  Sterilization  by  Heat 13 

12.  Preservation  by  Use  of  Antiseptics 14 

13.  Preservation  by  Drying 16 

14.  Preservation  by  Smoking 16 

15.  Preservation  by  Fermentation 17 

16.  Exclusion  of  Air 17 

ix 


x  CONTENTS 

PART  II.    METHODS  OF  FOOD  PRESERVATION 
CHAPTER  III 

CANNING  FRUITS 

PAGE 

1.  Picking 21 

2.  Grading  and  Sorting 23 

3.  Peeling,  Pitting,  Coring,  and  Cutting 23 

4.  Jars 25 

5.  Wax  Top  Cans 26 

6.  Solder  Top  Cans 28 

7.  Cooking  the  Fruit  before  Filling  the  Containers;  or  Hot 

Pack  Method 29 

8.  Filling  Jars  and  Cans  without  Previous  Cooking  of  the 

Fruit;  or  Cold  Pack  Method 30 

9.  Sanitary  Cans , 32 

10.  Sizes-of  Cans. 34 

11.  New  Weights  that  Cans  for  Market  must  Contain 34 

12.  Sirups  and  Hydrometers 37 

13.  Cane  vs.  Beet  Sugar 39 

14.  Exhausting 40 

15.  Sterilization  of  Fruits 41 

CHAPTER  IV 

CANNING  VEGETABLES 

16.  Canning  Vegetables — Peeling  and  Preparing 45 

17.  Blanching  or  Parboiling 46 

18.  Chilling 48 

19.  Brines  and  Acidified  Brines 48 

20.  Addition  of  the  Brine 50 

21.  Sterilization 50 

(a)  Pressure  Sterilization 50 

(b)  Intermittent  or  Three-Day  Sterilization  of  Vege- 

tables at  212°  F 52 

(c)  Sterilization  of  Vegetables   at  212°   F.   by  One- 

Period  Method 53 

(d)  Sterilization  by  the  Lemon  Juice  Method 53 


CONTENTS  xi 
CHAPTER  V 

CANNING  OF  MEATS 

PAGE 

22.  Preparation  of  Meats  for  Canning 55 

23.  Sterilization  of  Meats 56 

CHAPTER  VI 
STORAGE  AND  SPOILING  OF  CANNED  FOODS 

24.  Storage  of  Canned  Foods 57 

25.  Spoiling  of  Canned  Foods — Botulinus  Poisoning 57 

CHAPTER  VII 
FRUIT  JUICES 

26.  Fruits  for  Juice 60 

27.  Crushing 61 

28.  Heating  before  Pressing 62 

29.  Pressing 63 

30.  Clearing  the  Juice 64 

31.  Bottling  and  Canning 66 

32.  Pasteurization  of  Fruit  Juices 68 

CHAPTER  VIII 

FRUIT  AND  OTHER  SIRUPS 

33.  Sources  of  Sirups 72 

34.  Clearing  the  Juice 72 

35.  Deacidification 72 

36.  Concentration 73 

37.  Storing  the  Sirup 75 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IX 

JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES 

PAGE 

38.  Fruits  for  Jelly 76 

39.  Preparing  and  Cooking  the  Fruit 77 

40.  Expressing  and  Clearing  the  Juice 79 

41.  Testing  for  Pectin 79 

42.  Testing  for  Acid 80 

43.  Addition  of  Sugar , 80 

44.  Sheeting  Test  for  Jelling  Point 81 

45.  Thermometer  Test 81 

46.  Hydrometer  Test  for  Jelling  Point 82 

-  47.  Meaning  of  Thermometer  and  Hydrometer  Tests 83 

48.  Pouring  and  Cooling  the  Jelly 83 

49.  Coating  with  Paraffin 83 

50.  Sterilization  of  Jellies 84 

51.  Jellies  without  Cooking 84 

52.  Jelly  Stocks 85 

53.  Crystallization  of  Jellies 85 

54.  Marmalades 85 


CHAPTER  X 
FRUIT  JAMS,  BUTTERS,  AND  PASTES 

55.  Jams 87 

56.  Fruit  Butters 87 

57.  Fruit  Pastes 88 

CHAPTER  XI 

FRUIT  PRESERVES  AND  CANDIED  FRUITS 

58.  Preserves 89 

59.  Candied  Fruits ' 90 


CONTENTS  xiii 
CHAPTER  XII 

FRUIT  DRYING 

PAGE 

60.  Fruit  Drying — Importance  of  the  Industry 93 

61.  Gathering  the  Fruit 94 

62.  Transfer  to  the  Dry  Yard 94 

63.  Cutting  and  Peeling 95 

64.  Dipping  Fruits  before  Drying 95 

65.  Sulphuring  Fruits  before  Drying 96 

66.  Trays  for  Sun  Drying 101 

67.  Sun  Drying 101 

68.  Artificial  Evaporation 104 

69.  Sweating 109 

70.  Processing  and  Packing 109 

CHAPTER  XIII 

VEGETABLE  DRYING 

71.  Vegetables  for  Drying 112 

72.  Preparation 112 

73.  Blanching 113 

74.  Sulphuring 113 

75.  Sun  Drying 113 

76.  Artificial  Drying 114 

77.  Processing  Sun  Dried  Vegetables 115 

78.  Packing  and  Storing  Dried  Vegetables 115 

CHAPTER  XIV 

VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE 

79.  General  Principles 116 

80.  Raw  Materials 116 

81.  Crushing  Fruits  for  Vinegar 117 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

82.  Diluting  Honey 117 

83.  Preparation  of  Fruit  Cores  and  Peels  and  Dried  Fruits 

for  Vinegar  Making 118 

84.  Addition  of  Yeast  and  Control  of  Alcoholic  Fermentation.  118 

85.  Pressing  Fermented  Fruits 119 

86.  Removal  of  Sediment 120 

87.  Adding  Vinegar  Starter 120 

88.  Vinegar  Fermentation 120 

89.  Vinegar  Generators. 122 

90.  Aging  of  Vinegar 124 

91.  Clearing  the  Vinegar 125 

92.  Vinegar  Diseases  and  Pests 125 

(a)  Wine  Flowers 125 

(b)  Lactic  Acid  Bacteria 125 

(c)  Vinegar  Eels 126 


CHAPTER  XV 
FRUIT  WINES 

93.  Red  Wine. 127 

(a)  Crushing , 127 

(b)  Yeast '. 127 

(c)  First  Fermentation 127 

(d)  Pressing 128 

(e)  Final  Fermentation 128 

(f)  Settling  and  Filling  Up 128 

(g)  Racking 128 

(h)  Aging 128 

(i)  Clearing  the  Wine , 129 

(j)  Bottling 129 

94.  White  Wine 129 

(a)  Crushing,  Pressing,  and  Settling .  .  . 129 

(b)  Fermentation 129 

(c)  Racking,  Filling  Up,  Aging,  Clearing 129 

95.  Other  Fermented  Fruit  Juices •  •  129 


CONTENTS  xv 
CHAPTER  XVI 

PRESERVATION  OF  VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS  BY 
SALTING  AND  PICKLING 

PAGE 

96.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Salt .  . 131 

(a)  Dry  Salting. 131 

(b)  Salt  and  Fermentation 132 

(c)  Strong  Brine 133 

97.  Dill  Pickles 134 

98.  Pickling  Vegetables  in  Vinegar 135 

(a)  Storage  in  Brine 135 

(b)  Removal  of  Salt 136 

(c)  Addition  of  Vinegar 136 

99.  Pickling  Fruits  in  Vinegar 136 

100.  Olives 136 

(a)  Pickled  Ripe  Olives.  ...:...... 136 

(b)  Green  Olives 139 

(c)  "Greek"  Olives 139 

101.  Tomato  Ketchup 140 

(a)  Pulping 140 

(b)  Addition  of  Flavoring  Materials 140 

(c)  Boiling 141 

(d)  Sterilizing. 141 

102.  Miscellaneous  Tomato  Products 141 

(a)  Tomato  Paste 141 

(b)  Puree 142 

(c)  Chili  Sauce,  Piccalilli,  and  Relishes 142 

CHAPTER  XVII 

PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

103.  Salting  Meats 143 

(a)  Dry  Salting 143 

(b)  Preserving  Meats  in  Brine 143 

104.  Drying  Meats 145 

105.  Preservation  of  Meats  by  Smoking 145 

(a)  Salting 145 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

(b)  The  Smoke  House : 146 

(c)  Smoke  Producing  Substances 147 

(d)  Length  of  Smoking 148 

(e)  Storing  Smoked  Meats 148 

106.  Miscellaneous  Meat  Products 148 

107.  Preservation  of  Eggs  with  Water  Glass 149 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
MILK  PRODUCTS 

108.  Sterilization  and  Pasteurization  of  Milk 150 

(a)  Sterilization 150 

(b)  Pasteurization  of  Milk  in  the  Household 150 

109.  Storage  of  Butter 151 

110.  Cheese 152 

(a)  "Cottage"  Cheese 152 

(b)  Cheddar  Cheese 153 

(c)  Other  Types  of  Cheese 153 

PART  III.  FOOD  PRESERVATION  RECIPES 

CHAPTER  XIX 
FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES 

1.  Canning  Peaches 157 

2.  Alternative  Method  for  Canning  Peaches 161 

3.  Canning  Apricots 162 

4.  Lye  Peeling  Peaches  and  Apricots 163 

5.  Canning  Pears 163 

6.  Canning  Cherries .  .  . 164 

7.  Canning  Apples 165 

8.  Canning  Plums 165 

9.  Canning  Rhubarb 166 

10.  Canning  Rhubarb  without  Sterilization 166 

11.  Canning  Figs 166 


CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGE 

12.  Canning  Strawberries 167 

13.  Canning  Blackberries 168 

14.  Canning  Raspberries  and  Loganberries 168 

15.  Canning  Oranges 168 

16.  Canning  Grape  Fruit 169 

17.  Canning  Grapes 169 

18.  Canning  Pineapple 170 

19.  Canning  Currants,  Cranberries,  and  Gooseberries 170 

CHAPTER  XX 
CANNING  VEGETABLES 

20.  Canning  Artichokes 171 

21.  Canning  Asparagus 172 

22.  Canning  Green  String  Beans  and  Wax  Beans 173 

23.  Canning  Beets 173 

24.  Canning  Carrots,  Turnips,  Parsnips,  and  Onions 174 

25.  Canning  Corn 175 

26.  Canning  Green  Peas 175 

27.  Canning  Pimentos  and  Sweet  Peppers 176 

28.  Canning  Pumpkin  and  Squash 176 

29.  Canning  Spinach  and  Other  Greens 177 

30.  Canning  Tomatoes 177 

31.  Canning  Sweet  Potatoes 178 

32.  Canning  Dried  Beans 179 

33.  Canning  Hominy 179 

34.  Canning  Egg  Plant 180 

35.  Canning  Okra 180 

CHAPTER  XXI 

CANNING  MEATS 

36.  Canning  Meats  without  Preliminary  Cooking 182 

37.  Canning  Cooked  Meats 182 

38.  Canning  Corned  Beef    183 

39.  Canning  Fresh  Fish 183 

40.  Canning  Kippered  Fish 184 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXII 

FRUIT  JUICES 

PAGE 

41.  Apple  Juice 185 

42.  Red  Grape  Juice 186 

43.  Loganberry,  Blackberry,  and  Raspberry  Juices 188 

44.  Lemon  Juice 188 

45.  Orange  Juice 188 

46.  Orange-Lemon  Juice 189 

47.  Grape  Fruit  Juice 189 

48.  Pomegranate  Juice 190 

49.  Pineapple  Juice 190 

50.  Clarification  of  Fruit  Juices 190 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
RECIPES  FOR  SIRUPS 

51.  Fruit  Sirups  for  Cooking  Purposes 192 

52.  Fruit  Sirups  for  Table  Use 193 

53.  Fruit  Sirups  by  Sun  Evaporation 193 

54.  Fruit  Sirups  Made  by  the  Addition  of  Sugar 194 

55a.  Sorghum  Sirup 194 

55b.  Manufacture  of  Sorghum  on  Small  Commercial  Scale .  .  .  194 

56.  Sugar  Beet  Sirup 197 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

RECIPES  FOR  JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES 

57.  Jellies.  . .' 198 

58.  Jelly  Stocks 200 

59.  Jellies  without  Cooking ; 200 

60.  Orange  Marmalade 201 

61.  Grape  Fruit  and  Other  Marmalades 201 


CONTENTS  xix 

CHAPTER  XXV 

RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  JAMS,  BUTTERS,  AND  PASTES 

PAGE 

62.  Fruit  Jams 1 202 

63.  Fruit  Butters  with  the  Addition  of  Sugar 202 

64.  Fruit  Butters  without  the  Addition  of  Sugar 203 

65.  Fruit  Pastes 203 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

RECIPES  FOR  PRESERVES 

66.  Fig  Preserves 205 

67.  Peach,  Pear,  and  Quince  Preserves 205 

68.  Strawberry  Preserves 205 

69.  Watermelon  Preserves .  . 206 

70.  Tomato  Preserves 206 

71.  Preserved  Kumquats 206 

72.  Preserves  made  without  Cooking 207 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
CANDIED  FRUITS 

73.  Candied  Fruits  with  Use  of  Sugar  Tester 208 

74.  Candying  Fruits  without  the  Use  of  a  Sugar  Tester 209 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
RECIPES  FOR  DRYING  FRUITS 

75.  Sun  Drying  Apricots,  Pears,  Peaches,  and  Apples 211 

76.  Sun  Drying  Prunes 213 

77.  Drying  Thompson  Seedless  and  Sultana  Grapes 214 

78.  Drying  Muscat  and  " Currant"  Grapes 215 

79.  Packing  Raisins 215 

80.  Sun  Drying  Cherries 215 


xx  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

81.  Sun  Drying  Figs 215 

82.  Drying  Fruits  in  Evaporators 216 

(a)  Driers 216 

(b)  Preparation  of  Fruit 216 

(c)  Apples 216 

(d)  Apricots  and  Peaches 216 

(e)  Berries 216 

(f)  Cherries 216 

(g)  Pears 216 

(h)  Prunes 216 

(i)  Grapes 216 

(j)  Figs 217 

(k)  Processing  and  Storing 217 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
RECIPES  FOR  DRYING  VEGETABLES 

83.  Sun  Drying  String  Beans  and  Peas .218 

84.  Sun  Drying  Corn 219 

85.  Sun  Drying  Irish  Potatoes 219 

86.  Sun  Drying  Sweet  Potatoes 219 

87.  Sun    Drying    Carrots,    Turnips,    Onions,    Cabbage,    and 

Cauliflower 219 

88.  Sun  Drying  Beets,  Pumpkin,  and  Squash 219 

89.  Sun  Drying  Tomatoes 220 

90.  Sun  Drying  Peppers 220 

91.  Drying  Vegetables  in  an  Artificial  Evaporator 220 

CHAPTER  XXX 
RECIPES  FOR  VINEGAR  MAKING 

92.  Home  Manufacture  of  Vinegar  from  Whole  Fruits 222 

93.  Vinegar  from  Cores,  Peels,  and  Fruit  Scraps 223 

94.  Vinegar  from  Honey  and  Sirups 223 

95.  Clarifying  Vinegar 223 


CONTENTS  xxi 

CHAPTER  XXXI 

RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  WINES 

PAGE 

96.  Red  Wine 225 

97.  White  Wine 226 

98.  Hard  Cider  from  Apples,  Oranges,  and  other  Fruits 226 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

RECIPES  FOR  PRESERVATION  OF  VEGETABLES  BY 
SALT  OR  FERMENTATION 

99.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Dry  Salt 227 

100.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  in  Strong  Brine 228 

101.  Preservation  of  Cabbage  by  Fermentation  (Sauerkraut) .  .   228 

102.  Preservation  of  String  Beans,  Beets,  and  Greens  by  Fer- 

mentation     229 

103.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Fermentation  in  Brine ....   229 

104.  Dill  Pickles 230 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

RECIPES  FOR  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES 

105.  Cucumber  Pickles  in  Vinegar 231 

106.  Onion,  Green  Tomato,  and  Cauliflower  Pickles  in  Vinegar  231 

107.  Sweet  Vegetable  Pickles 232 

108.  Sweet  Fruit  Pickles 232 

109.  Sweet  Pickled  Watermelon  Rind 233 

110.  Spiced  Green  Tomatoes 233 

111.  Chow  Chow 233 

112.  Mustard  Pickles 234 

113.  Piccalilli 235 

114.  Chili  Sauce 235 

115.  Dixie  Relish 236 

116.  Chutney 237 

117.  Stuffed  Pickled  Sweet  Peppers 237 


xxii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

118.  Green  Tomato  Pickle 238 

119.  Tomato  Ketchup 238 

120.  Tomato  Paste 239 

121.  Ripe  Olive  Pickles 240 

122.  Green  Olive  Pickles 241 

123.  Ripe  Olive  Paste 242 

124.  Ripe  Olives  Cured  by  the  Salt  Process 242 

125.  Dessicated  Olives 242 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 
RECIPES  FOR  THE  HOME  PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  AND  EGGS 

126.  Plain  Salt  Pork 243 

127.  Corned  Beef 244 

128.  Sugar  Curing  Hams  and  Bacon  for  Smoking 245 

129.  Dry  Curing  of  Pork  for  Smoking 245 

130.  Salting  Beef  for  Drying 246 

131.  Preservation  of  Fish  by  Salting 246 

132.  Home  Made  Smoke  House . 247 

133.  Fuel  for  Smoking : 248 

134.  Ham  and  Bacon 248 

135.  Dried  Smoked  Beef 248 

136.  Smoking  Large  Fish 248 

137.  Smoking  Small  Fish 249 

138.  Drying  Fish 249 

139.  Dried  Beef  and  Venison  ("  Jerkey") 250 

140.  Preservation  of  Eggs  in  Water  Glass 250 

141.  Preservation  of  Eggs  in  Lime  and  Salt 250 

CHAPTER  XXXV 
RECIPES  FOR  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

142.  Gouda  Cheese 251 

143.  Cottage  Cheese 254 

144.  The  Preservation  of  Butter  by  Salt 255 

Appendix 257 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1 .  Preparing  Fruit  for  Canning 22 

2.  Types  of  Knives  for  Preparation  of  Fruit 24 

3.  Cherry  Fitter  for  Home  Use 25 

4.  Apple  Peeling  Machine  for  Home  Use 26 

5.  Common  Types  of  Jars 27 

6.  Common  Types  of  Cans  for  Home  Canning 27 

7.  Useful  Utensils  in  Canning 28 

8.  Blanching  and  Chilling  Vegetables  before  Canning 30 

9.  Filling  Jars  with  Heated  Fruit 31 

10.  Filling  Jars  with  Hot  Brine  or  Sirup  before  Lowering  Them 

into  Sterilizer 32 

11.  Gasoline  Fire  Pot  for  Heating  Soldering  Irons 33 

12.  View  in  Modern  Cannery  Sealing  Cans 35 

13.  Hand  Power  Capping  Machine  for  Sanitary  Cans 38 

14.  A  Convenient  Form  of  Washboiler  Sterilizer 41 

15.  Washboiler  Sterilizer  with  Cover  Made  Tight  by  Use  of  a 

Cloth 43 

16.  Closing  Jars  after  Sterilizing 46 

17.  Positions  of  Clamp  on  Glass  Top  Jar  before  and  after 

Sterilizing 47 

18.  Home  Size  Steam  Pressure  Sterilizer 48 

19.  Normal  and  Spoiled  Cans  of  Food 58 

20.  Small  Crusher  for  Home  Use 61 

21.  Pressing  Crushed  Fruit 62 

22.  Small  Crusher  and  Press  for  Farm  Use 63 

23.  Straining  Juice  after  Pressing 64 

24.  Capping  Bottles  with  Small  Hand  Power  Crown  Capper. .  .  67 

25.  Sterilizing  Bottles  of  Juice 68 

26.  Wooden  Vat  with  Steam  Coil  for  Use  in  Sterilizing  Bottles 

of  Juice  or  Cans  of  Food 69 

27.  Plan  for  Arrangement  of  Steam  Coil  of  Figure  26 69 

28.  Dipping  Ends  of  Bottles  in  Melted  Paraffin  to  Seal  Corks 

after  Pasteurizing 70 


xxiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

29.  Apparatus  for  Sun  Evaporation  of  Fruit  Juices 73 

30.  The  Pectin  Test 76 

31.  The  Thermometer  Test  for  Jellies 78 

32.  The  Baume  Hydrometer  for  Jelly  Test 82 

33.  Marmalade  Slicer 86 

34.  Placing  Candied  Fruits  on  Wire  Screen  to  Drain 91 

35.  Knocking  Ripe  Prunes  from  Trees  for  Drying 94 

36.  Dipping  Prunes  and  White  Grapes  in  Boiling  Y^%  Lye  Solu- 

tion before  Drying 96 

37.  Upper  View.     Fruit  Dipper  for  Prunes 97 

Lower  View.     Stacking  Fruit  that  is  Nearly  Dry 97 

38.  Views  of  Drying  Yards  in  California 98 

39.  Small  Fruit  Sulphuring  Box  for  Home  Use 100 

40.  Sulphuring  Fruit  on  a  Large  Scale  in  California 101 

41.  Muscat  Grapes  Drying  on  Trays  in  the  Vineyard 102 

42.  Sorting  Dried  Prunes 103 

43.  Pomona  Vegetable  Peeler 104 

44.  A  Home  Made  Dryer  for  Use  above  the  Kitchen  Stove. .  .  .  105 

45.  Small  Home  Made  Cabinet  Dryer 106 

46.  Galvanized  Iron  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Dryer  for  Farm  Use .  107 

47.  Packing  of  Dried  Vegetables  in  Insect-Proof  Containers.  .  .  114 

48.  Fermenting  Vats  Used  in  Large  Scale  Manufacture  of  Vine- 

gar from  Fruits 117 

49.  Barrel  Arranged  for  Vinegar  Making 121 

50.  Plan  for  Upright  Vinegar  Generator  for  Farm  Use 122 

51.  Leo  Acid  Tester  for  Testing  Strength  of  Vinegar 124 

52.  Barrel  or  Other  Container  Arranged  for  Fermentation  of 

Vegetables 133 

53.  Preserving  Vegetables  by  Salting 134 

54.  Vats  of  Olives  being  Exposed  to  Air  to  Color  Them  during 

Pickling  Process . 137 

55.  Interior  of  Large  Olive  Pickling  Plant 138 

56.  Home-Made  Smoke  House 146 

57.  Capping  and  Tipping  a  Solder  Top  Can 160 

58.  Horse  Power  Sorghum  or  Cane  Mill 195 

59.  Evaporating  Pan  for  Sorghumand  Other  Sirups 196 

60.  Apple  Peeler  for  Farm  Use 212 

61.  Hand  Power  Vegetable  Slicer 220 


PART  I 
THEORY  OF  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


HOME   AND   FARM   FOOD 
PRESERVATION 

CHAPTER  I 
WHY  FOOD  SPOILS 

Food  spoils  because  of  the  growth  and  destructive 
action  of  microscopic  living  organisms.  They  are  com- 
monly termed  "  germs."  The  various  methods  of  food 
preservation  are  practically  all  based  upon  processes 
that  destroy  these  organisms  or  prevent  their  growth 
and  activity.  Because  they  are  microscopic  and  because 
they  are  living  organisms,  we  shall  for  convenience  call 
them  "  microorganisms." 

1.  Molds.  The  molding  of  food  is  a  common  phenom- 
enon. In  some  cases  the  food  is  completely  spoiled;  in 
others,  the  decomposition  is  not  sufficient  to  make  the 
product  inedible;  and  in  a  few  products,  the  growth  of 
certain  molds  is  desirable. 

The  most  prevalent  mold  and  the  one  causing  the  most 
damage  is  the  "  blue  mold,"  otherwise  known  as  "  Peni- 
cillium  expansum."  It  first  appears  usually  as  a  white 
cottony  growth  on  fruits,  cheese,  cured  meats,  vegetables, 
jellies,  wine  tanks,  leather  left  in  dark  closets,  and  on 
other  articles  favorable  to  its  growth.  This  cottony 
growth  of  mold  threads  is  known  as  a  "  mycelium." 
Later,  the  mold  becomes  "  powdery "  in  appearance 
and  green  or  blue  in  color.  This  change  in  color  is  due  to 
the  formation  of  billions  of  microscopic  cells  or  "  spores." 
The  spores  are  very  light  and  easily  detached.  They 
are  carried  by  the  air  or  other  agencies  from  place  to 

3 


4         HOME  'AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

place.  They  :aro  floating/  in*, the  air  at  all  times  and 
places  and  are  present  on  the  surfaces  of  all  fresh  foods. 
They  are  capable  of  sprouting  when  conditions  become 
favorable.  A  large  growth  may  start  from  a  single  cell 
or  spore. 

Fruits  whose  skins  become  broken  in  transit  suffer 
badly  from  this  mold  and  acquire  a  moldy  taste  and 
odor.  In  some  such  cases  the  growth  will  not  be  ap- 
parent because  the  mold  threads  are  growing  in  the 
pulp  or  juice  of  the  fruit. 

The  surface  of  jellies  may  become  overgrown  by  this 
organism  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  jelly  completely 
spoiled.  Leaky  jars  of  fruit  may  mold  from  the  growth 
of  penicillium  spores  gaining  entrance  through  the  leaks. 
Bacon  and  cheese  may  develop  green  spots  of  this  mold 
on  the  surface  and  still  not  be  spoiled  if  the  mold  is  re- 
moved in  time.  The  inside  of  wine  or  vinegar  barrels 
may  be  completely  spoiled  where  this  mold  is  allowed  to 
develop  through  improper  care  of  the  barrels. 

The  blue  mold  can  be  controlled,  but  great  care  must 
be  taken  if  it  is  to  be  completely  eliminated.  Its  spores 
are  killed  by  heating  to  180°  F.  and  growth  is  prevented 
by  many  chemicals. 

"  Black  Mold,"  otherwise  known  as  "  Aspergillus 
niger,"  often  occurs  on  fruits  that  have  become  moist 
on  the  surface  or  broken;  or  it  may  occur  on  other 
products  occasionally.  It  does  not  produce  a  moldy 
taste  or  odor;  it  is  much  less  prevalent,  and  is  easier  to 
control  than  is  the  blue  mold. 

"  Pin  Mold,"  or  "  Gray  Mold,"  or  "  Bread  Mold," 
usually  causes  the  molding  of  bread  stored  in  a  moist 
place.  It  also  occurs  frequently  on  fruits  and  may  ap- 
pear as  "  whiskers  "  on  peaches,  grapes,  and  other  fruits, 
shipped  long  distances  in  boxes.  It  is  not  especially 
important  in  food  preservation.  It  is  known  botanically 
as  Mucor. 


WHY  FOOD  SPOILS  5 

There  are  hundreds  of  other  forms  of  molds  but  the 
above  forms  are  by  far  the  most  common  on  food 
products. 

Molds  are  not  always  deleterious  in  their  action. 
Camembert,  Rocquefort,  and  some  other  fancy  cheeses 
owe  their  distinctive  quality  to  the  growth  of  special 
forms  of  Penicillium  molds.  A  form  of  Aspergillus 
mold,  known  as  Aspergillus  oryzse,  is  used  extensively 
in  Japan  in  making  "  Saki,"  Japanese  beer.  A  Mucor 
mold  is  used  frequently  in  distilleries  in  the  production 
of  alcohol  from  cereals. 

In  general,  molds  are  of  interest  in  food  preservation 
because  of  their  capacity  for  spoiling  food,  their  uni- 
versal occurrence  on  food  products,  and  the  difficulty 
in  killing  their  spores  by  heat  or  controlling  their  growth 
in  other  ways. 

2.  Yeasts.  When  a  fruit  juice  is  allowed  to  stand  a 
few  days  it  undergoes  fermentation.  The  sugar  is  de- 
stroyed and  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas  are  formed. 
This  change  is  brought  about  by  another  group  of  mi- 
croscopic organisms,  known  as  yeasts.  Yeasts  are  used 
in  bread  making,  vinegar  manufacture,  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  various  fermented  beverages. 

Unlike  molds,  they  do  not  form  a  mycelium,  i.  e.,  a 
thread-like  growth,  but  only  develop  as  microscopic 
cells  of  various  forms.  They  appear  in  fermented  liquids 
as  a  white  sediment  or  a  cloudy  growth  throughout  the 
liquid. 

They  are  universally  present  in  the  air,  on  the  surfaces 
of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  of  tables,  knives,  etc.,  and 
are  capable  of  growing  in  and  spoiling  sugary  liquids, 
crushed  fruits,  jellies  that  do  not  have  sufficient  sugar, 
and  in  other  products  containing  from  one  to  65%  sugar. 
More  sugar  than  65%  prevents  their  growth. 

Jars  and  cans  of  fruit  that  become  leaky  after  steriliza- 
tion become  infected  with  yeast  cells  carried  in  by  air 


6         HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

passing  into  the  containers.  Growth  and  fermentation 
take  place  and  the  pressure  of.  the  carbonic  acid  formed 
by  the  yeast  causes  the  container  to  swell  or  burst. 
Much  canned  fruit  is  lost  in  this  way.  The  housewife 
usually  attributes  the  loss  to  the  entrance  of  air.  It  is 
in  reality  caused  by  yeast  gaining  entrance  with  the 
air;  air  alone  would  be  incapable  of  causing  fermen- 
tation. 

Yeasts  are  easily  killed  by  heat,  a  temperature  of 
60°  C.  or  140°  F.  being  sufficient,  and  in  general,  yeasts 
are  more  easily  controlled  than  molds.  Conditions  that 
will  eliminate  molds  will  also  remove  yeasts. 

Yeasts  cause  the  "  souring,"  "  working/7  or  ferment- 
ing-of  spoiled  jars  or  cans  of  fruit,  bottles  of  fruit  juices, 
or  glasses  of  jelly.  They  are  therefore  of  much  impor- 
tance in  the  preservation  of  fruit  products. 

They  are  necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  all  fermented 
beverages,  denatured  alcohol,  vinegar,  and  yeast-risen 
bread.  Yeasts  are  the  most  useful  of  all  the  micro- 
organisms met  with  in  food  preservation. 

3.  Bacteria.  Milk  sours  on  standing;  meat  and  many 
cooked  vegetables  putrefy  unless  spoiling  is  prevented; 
dill  pickles  and  sauerkraut  undergo  certain  characteristic 
changes.  These  changes  are  wholly,  or  in  most  part, 
brought  about  by  bacteria.  They  comprise  the  third 
main  group  of  "  germs  "  or  microorganisms.  Like  the 
other  two  groups  they  are  universally  distributed.  Bac- 
teria are,  as  a  rule,  smaller  than  yeasts  and  differ  from 
them  in  their  method  of  reproduction.  Yeasts  reproduce 
by  budding  and  bacteria  by  splitting  in  two,  i.  e.,by"  fis- 
sion." Bacteria  prefer  nitrogenous  substances  of  low 
acid  content,  such  as  milk,  meat,  peas,  and  beans,  and 
do  not  grow  readily  on  fruits  or  acid  vegetables.  Molds 
and  yeasts  prefer  sugary,  acid  materials. 

Yeast  and  mold  spores  are  easily  killed  by  tempera- 
tures below  212°  F.  Many  bacterial  spores  survive  tem- 


WHY  FOOD  SPOILS  7 

* 

peratures  above  212°  F.,  the  boiling  point  of  water. 
For  this  reason,  many  foods  containing  such  spores  are 
exceedingly  difficult  to  sterilize  by  heat.  This  does  not 
apply  to  foods  high  in  acid  because  these  bacteria  can 
not  grow  readily  in  the  presence  of  much  acid  and  are 
more  easily  killed  in  acid  foods. 

Yeasts  and  molds  produce  relatively  harmless  com- 
pounds in  food  products.  Bacteria  on  the  other  hand 
may  produce  in  canned  vegetables,  in  meats,  and  in 
cheese,  extremely  poisonous  compounds.  These  are  the 
ptomaines  and  botulinus  poison.  (See  paragraph  25, 
Part  II,  on  "  Spoiling  of  Canned  Foods.")  |It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  be  sure  that  such  products  as  canned  peas, « 
beans,  corn,  and  meats,  are  thoroughly  sterilized,  in 
order  that  poisoning  will  not  occur. 

Several  forms  of  bacteria  are  extremely  useful  in  food 
preservation  and  food  manufacture.  The  two  most 
important  are  vinegar  bacteria,  necessary  in  making 
vinegar,  and  lactic  acid  bacteria,  essential  in  the  manu- 
facture and  preservation  of  sauerkraut,  pickled  green 
olives,  silage,  and  cheese.  "  Vinegar  Mother "  is  a 
growth  of  vinegar  bacteria;  the  sour  taste  of  sauerkraut 
and  sour  milk  is  brought  about  by  lactic  acid  formed 
by  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

4.  Spoiling  of  Foods  by  Chemical  and  Physical 
Changes.  Some  food  products  decompose  without  the 
.  action  of  organisms.  Edible  fats  and  oils  become  rancid 
through  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Meats 
are  sometimes  practically  spoiled  by  the  use  of  too 
much  salt  in  salt  curing.  Dried  fruits  may  be  greatly 
injured  by  leaving  them  too  long  in  the  sun  on  trays. 
Canned  goods  sometimes  act  upon  the  tin  of  the 
cans  to  such  an  extent  that  they  become  poisonous  or 
inedible. 

Practically  all  food  products  undergo  slow  changes 
through  drying  or  oxidation  when  left  exposed  to  the 


8         HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

air.     Even  cereals  deteriorate  with  age  in  bins,  eleva- 
tors, etc. 

Changes  of  this  sort  are  as  a  rule  slower  and  more 
easily  controlled  than  bacterial  changes.  It  is  usually 
only  necessary  to  exclude  moisture  or  air  or  control  the 
temperature. 


CHAPTER  II 
WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING 

A.  TEMPORARY  PREVENTION  OF  SPOILING 

It  is  often  desirable  to  preserve  foods  for  a  relatively 
short  time  only.  In  such  cases  methods  are  usually  em- 
ployed, which  will  alter  the  original  qualities  of  the 
product  as  little  as  possible.  The  methods  will  vary 
with  the  character  of  the  food  and  other  conditions. 

5.  Asepsis.     Milk,  fresh  fruit  juices  and  the  surfaces 
of  fruits,  vegetables,  meats,   and  other  food  products 
contain  great  numbers  of  microorganisms  capable  of 
causing    spoiling.      By    handling    these    products   in   a 
careful  and  cleanly  way,  by  using  containers  that  are 
clean  and  preferably  sterilized  by  heat,  and  by  washing 
or    otherwise    cleansing    certain    products    of    adhering 
dust,  etc.,  the  molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  will  be  kept 
down  to  small  numbers,  and  their  multiplication  will  be 
hindered.     Often  such  treatment  will  greatly  prolong 
the  keeping  of  food  products,  especially  of  fresh  fruits 
and  vegetables.     Cleanliness  and  care  in  handling  in 
order  that  excessive  contamination  by   "  germs "  will 
be  prevented  is  termed  "  asepsis/'     The  extreme  care 
taken  in  modern  certified  dairies  in  the  production  of 
certified  milk  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  applica- 
tion of  asepsis  in  the  handling  of  a  food  product. 

6.  Cold  Storage.    The  organisms  that  cause  spoiling, 
grow  most  rapidly  and  are  most  active  at  warm  tempera- 
tures.    At  temperatures  near  the  freezing  point  their 
growth  is  almost  completely  stopped.     The  storage  of 
eggs,  meats,  and  fruits  at  low  temperatures  has  become 

9 


10       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

an  enormous  industry.  It  has  made  these  foods  avail- 
able over  a  longer  period  of  the  year  than  would  other- 
wise be  possible.  Fresh  meat  is  exported  in  great  quan- 
tities from  South  America,  Australia,  and  the  United 
States  in  ships  equipped  with  cold  storage  facilities. 

Cold  storage  is  principally  an  industrial  undertaking 
but  is  used  extensively  in  a  small  way  by  housewives 
and  farmers  in  the  use  of  the  various  forms  of  household 
ice  chests  and  in  the  winter  storage  of  vegetables  on 
farms.  Meat  is  often  allowed  to  freeze  in  the  winter  air 
and  is  kept  in  a  cold  place  till  needed. 

In  all  cases  the  principle  involved  is  the  same;  namely, 
reducing  the  activity  of  the  microorganisms  of  spoiling 
by  a  reduction  of  temperature.  Lowering  of  tempera- 
ture also  slows  up  deleterious  chemical  changes  such  as 
the  rancidifying  of  fats,  and  oils,  and  the  deterioration 
of  cereals. 

7.  Exclusion  of  Moisture,     Moisture  is  necessary  to 
the    growth    of    microscopic    organisms.      Fruits    often 
spoil  during  shipment  because  of  the  collection  on  their 
surfaces  of  moisture,  in  which  molds  develop.    Perfectly 
dry  surfaces  will  not  support  mold  or  other  "  germ  " 
growth.    For  this  reason,  dried  fruits,  meats,  dried  vege- 
tables, and  cereals  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  atmosphere. 
Cars  for  the  shipment  of  fresh  fruits  are  well  ventilated 
in  order  that  moisture  in  excessive  amounts  will  not 
collect  on  the  fruit,  and  permit  growth  of  mold.     The 
same  principle  applies  to  the  storing  of  bread,  meats, 
cereals,  flour  and  many  other  foods.     As  in  the  ship- 
ment of  fruit  or  the  keeping  of  bread,  exclusion  of  surface 
moisture  involves  ventilation;  that  is,  a  supply  of  cir- 
culating air  to  carry  away  any  moisture  given  off  by  the 
food  product. 

8.  Use  of  Mild  Antiseptics.    Food  products  may  often 
be  preserved  a  short  time  by  the  use  of  small  amounts  of 
antiseptics.     These  inhibit,  that  is,  decrease  or  prevent 


WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING  11 

the  activity  of  the  organisms  of  spoiling  but  do  not 
destroy  them.  For  example,  meat  may  be  kept  by  the 
addition  of  salt.  If  small  amounts  are  used,  the  preserva- 
tion will  be  temporary;  if  large  quantities  are  added,  the 
meat  will  be  permanently  preserved.  The  same  applies 
to  butter  preserved  with  salt.  Sugar  in  amounts  less 
than  65%  exerts  a  temporary  preservative  effect.  Small 
amounts  of  sodium  benzoate  are  used  'in  ketchups,  etc., 
as  a  means  of  temporary  preservation.  Milk  is  some- 
times illegally  preserved  temporarily  by  the  addition  of 
formaldehyde  or  borax  in  small  amounts.  These  are 
examples  of  the  use  of  various  antiseptics  as  a  means  of 
temporary  preservation. 

9.  Pasteurization  as  a  Means  of  Temporary  Preserva- 
tion. By  pasteurization  is  meant  heating  a  food  product 
to  a  temperature  which  kills  most  of  the  organisms  pres- 
ent, but  does  not  destroy  all.  It  also  greatly  weakens 
those  not  killed  and  retards  their  normal  development. 
The  most  familiar  example  of  this  method  is  in  the  pas- 
teurization of  milk.  The  temperature  used  kills  typhoid 
and  tuberculosis  bacteria,  but  does  not  destroy  certain 
spore-bearing  bacteria.  The  milk  so  treated  will  usually 
be  free  from  bacteria  capable  of  producing  serious  dis- 
eases but  will  not  keep  permanently,  because  the  spores 
of  the  resistant  bacteria  will  finally  develop  and  cause 
spoiling.  Milk  pasteurization  for  market  dairy  milk  is 
compulsory  in  many  cities  and  states.  Many  other  food 
products  are  heated  to  keep  them  for  a  few  days;  for 
example,  meats,  cooked  vegetables,  jams,  etc.,  are  often 
so  treated  by  simply  heating  them  in  an  open  pot.  This 
preserves  them  for  several  days.  Pasteurization  may, 
then,  be  taken  to  mean  the  heating  of  a  food  product  to 
a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  kill  many  of  the  micro- 
organisms, but  not  all  that  are  present,  and  results  in 
temporary  preservation  only.  It  is  usually  carried  out 
at  temperatures  below  212°  F.,  the  boiling  point  of  water. 


12       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  term  "  pasteurization  "  is  frequently  applied  to 
the  sterilization  of  fruit  juices  or  other  products  at  tem- 
peratures below  212°  F.  In  most  of  these  cases,  how- 
ever, the  products  are  actually  sterilized;  that  is,  all 
living  organisms  are  killed.  Sterilization  thus  differs 
from  pasteurization  in  that  sterilization  is  complete 
destruction  of  all  life  present  and  pasteurization  is  only 
destruction  of  part  of  the  organisms  present. 

10.  Exclusion  of  Air.  The  keeping  qualities  of  some 
food  products  are  enhanced  if  air  is  effectively  excluded. 
This  is  true  of  pickles,  such  as  dill  pickles,  and  green  olive 
pickles;  also  of  butter,  cheese,  olive  oil,  wine,  and  vinegar. 
In  some  cases  the  effect  is  due  to  the  exclusion  of  or- 
ganisms, e.  g.y  eggs  sealed  with  water  glass  or  paraffin; 
in  others,  to  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  molds  or  bacteria  that  would  destroy  such  foods 
as  pickles  and  wine,  and  in  other  cases  to  the  exclusion  of 
oxygen  essential  to  the  deleterious  chemical  changes  that 
take  place  in  such  food  products  as  olive  oil  and  other 
vegetable  and  animal  oils  and  fats. 

The  popular  idea  that  air  itself  causes  the  spoiling  of 
canned  fruits,  vegetables,  and  various  other  canned 
products  by  its  entrance  through  leaks  is  erroneous. 
This  can  be  proven  by  sterilizing  food  products  in  bottles 
plugged  with  cotton.  Air  can  go  in  but  "  germs  "  are 
retained  on  the  cotton.  The  sterilized  product  will  keep 
indefinitely  under  these  conditions.  It  is  the  growth  of 
molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  gaining  entrance  with  the 
air  that  causes  spoiling. 

B.  PERMANENT  PREVENTION  OF  SPOILING 

There  are  several  important  principles  applied  in  the 
permanent  preservation  of  food  products.  Like  methods 
of  temporary  preservation,  the  process  must  be  adapted 
to  the  product  and  the  existing  conditions.  In  the  fol- 


WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING  13 

lowing  paragraphs  the  most  important  principles  are 
discussed. 

11.  Preservation  by  Sterilization  by  Heat.  Steriliza- 
tion by  heat  means  complete  destruction  of  all  forms  of 
life  in  the  product  sterilized.  If  the  sterilized  material 
is  to  be  kept  for  any  appreciable  length  of  time,  steriliza- 
tion must  be  accompanied  by  sealing  the  product  in 
air-tight  containers.  The  exclusion  of  air  is  necessary 
in  order  that  microorganisms  shall  not  gain  entrance 
to  the  food. 

The  temperature  necessary  for  sterilization  will  de- 
pend almost  entirely  upon  the  composition  of  the  food. 
Foods  high  in  acid  are  very  easily  sterilized;  those  low 
in  acid  are  difficult  to  sterilize.  This  rule  holds,  ap- 
parently without  exception.  Meats,  milk,  and  vege- 
tables of  low  acidity,  such  as  peas,  corn,  pumpkin,  and 
beans  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  sterilize  by  heat.  Acid 
products,  such  as  most  fruits  and  tomatoes,  are  easily 
sterilized.  On  all  of  these  products  are  found  numbers 
of  spore  bearing  bacteria  of  great  resistance  to  heat;  but 
apparently  in  the  presence  of  acid  they  are  easily  killed 
or  are  not  able  to  develop.  Regardless  of  which  theory 
is  true,  it  remains  a  fact  that  acidity  very  positively 
affects  sterilizing  temperatures.  If  products  low  in 
acid  are  acidified  with  some  harmless  acid  substance 
such  as  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  they  will  become  rela- 
tively easy  to  sterilize.  This  principle  is  made  use  of  in 
the  "  lemon  juice  method  "  described  later. 

Fruit  juices  and  most  fruits  are  readily  sterilized  by 
a  few  minutes'  heating  to  165°  F.;  pickled  olives  must  be 
heated  a  short  time  at  212°  F.,  the  boiling  point  of  water; 
string  beans  require  two  hours  or  longer  at  212°  F.; 
corn,  three  hours  or  longer  at  212°  F.;  and  meats,  four 
hours  or  longer  at  212°  F.  There  is  thus  a  gradation  in 
the  length  of  heating  and  the^temperature  necessary  for 
complete  sterilization. 


14       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Sterilization  in  boiling  water  at  212°  F.  is  made  more 
effective  if  the  time  of  sterilization  is  broken  up  into  two 
or  three  periods  separated  by  intervals  of  24  hours. 
For  example,  corn  or  meat  may  be  readily  sterilized  by 
heating  in  cans  or  jars  in  boiling  water  for  one  hour  on 
each  of  three  successive  days.  Between  the  first  and 
second  heating,  most  of  the  spores  that  have  survived 
the  first  heating  will  germinate  because  of  the  softening 
effect  of  the  heat.  These  will  be  very  tender  and  will 
be  easily  killed  when  the  second  heating  occurs.  The 
third  heating  will  kill  all  the  spores  left  from  the  second 
heating.  This  method  is  known  as  "  intermittent 
sterilization,"  or  the  "  three-day  method. "  It  is  well 
adapted  to  the  household  sterilization  of  meats  and 
certain  vegetables.  Its  application  is  described  later. 

Steam  confined  in  a  closed  space  and  heated  will  reach 
temperatures  above  212°.  The  spores  of  bacteria,  in  or 
on  products  difficult  to  sterilize,  will  be  quickly  killed  if 
the  materials  are  confined  in  a  steam  retort  and  heated 
under  steam  pressure  of  several  pounds  per  square  inch. 
This  method  is  used  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  in 
commercial  canneries  for  the  sterilization  of  such  ma- 
terials as  peas,  beans,  corn,  meats,  and  milk.  It  requires 
factory-made  equipment,  but  simple  inexpensive  steam 
pressure  sterilizers  for  home  use  are  available.  The 
home  application  of  steam  pressure  sterilization  will  be 
discussed  later. 

12.  Preservation  by  Use  of  Antiseptics.  Salt,  sugar, 
vinegar  acid,  and  lactic  acid  are  used  commonly  as  pre- 
servatives for  foods  and  prevent  spoiling  by  their  poi- 
sonous action  upon  microorganisms.  These  are  all  harm- 
less antiseptics.  Various  chemicals  are  also  used  as  food 
preservatives  but  most  of  them  are  considered  harmful 
to  health.  Examples  are  benzoic  acid,  sodium  benzoate, 
salicylic  acid,  formaldehyde,  sulphurous  acid,  and  sodium 
fluoride. 


WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING  15 

Sugar  will  prevent  spoiling  if  it  is  present  to  the  ex- 
tent of  65%.  Sirups,  honey,  jellies,  candies,  and  marma- 
lades do  not  spoil  because  they  contain  enough  sugar  to 
prevent  molding  or  fermentation. 

Salt  must  usually  be  present  to  the  extent  of  at  least 
15%  to  act  as  a  permanent  preservative.  An  apparent 
exception  would  appear  to  be  butter,  where  5%  is  suf- 
ficient. But  in  this  case,  the  real  preservative  effect 
of  the  salt  takes  place  in  the  buttermilk  and  brine  in 
the  butter  because  the  butter  fat  itself  is  inert  and  does 
not  dissolve  the  salt.  The  liquid  portion  of  the  butter 
constitutes  only  15%  or  less  of  the  butter.  Therefore* 
5%  of  salt  calculated  on  the  weight  of  the  butter  would 
give  a  30%  solution  in  the  liquid  part  of  the  butter.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  other  salted  products.  It  is 
the  salt  in  solution  that  exercises  an  antiseptic  effect  in 
the  preservation  of  salted  meats  and  salted  vegetables. 

Vinegar  acid  is  a  more  effective  antiseptic  than  salt 
or  sugar.  For  most  food  products  3%  acetic  acid  is 
sufficient  to  preserve  them.  Vinegar  is  used  in  the  presr 
ervation  of  many  forms  of  pickles. 

Benzoate  of  soda  is  the  most  common  and  least  harm- 
ful chemical  preservative  used.  It  is  allowed  by  pure 
food  laws  in  quantities  up  to  one-tenth  of  1%.  It  is 
used  for  the  preservation  of  sirups  and  fruit  preserves 
used  in  soda  fountains  and  for  the  preservation  of 
ketchup. 

Sulphurous  acid  from  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  is 
allowed  in  small  quantities  in  food  products.  Other 
chemical  preservatives  are  prohibited  by  law  and  are 
therefore  of  little  interest  to  the  housewife  and  farmer. 
Sulphurous  acid  from  burning  sulphur  is  used  in  fruit 
drying  to  prevent  darkening.  Its  use  for  this  purpose  is 
universal  and  is  permitted  by  pure  food  laws.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  the  amount  used  is  suffi- 
cient to  act  as  a  permanent  preservative. 


16       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

13.  Preservation   by  Drying.     Microorganisms   that 
cause  spoiling  require  a  certain  minimum  amount  of 
moisture  for  growth.     If  the  moisture  falls  below  this 
minimum  in  a  food  product  the  food  will  not  spoil  by 
molding,  fermentation,  or  putrefaction.     This  principle 
is  made  use  of  in  the  drying  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
meats,  and  making  dessicated  liquids,  such  as  dessicated 
milk,  dried  coffee  extract,  etc. 

The  amount  of  evaporation  necessary  will  depend  upon 
the  composition  of  the  food.  Foods  impregnated  with 
salt  need  not  be  dried  so  much  as  those  not  containing 
salt,  because  the  salt  exerts  an  antiseptic  effect  in  addi- 
tion to  the  preservative  effect  of  the  drying.  The  same 
applies  to  smoked  meats.  Fruits  and  vegetables  must 
be  dried  to  the  point  where  the  juice  or  sap  in  the  dried 
product  contains  more  than  65%  sugar,  or  its  equivalent 
in  other  soluble  compounds.  It  is  actually  the  high  con- 
centration of  sugar  in  these  cases  that  exerts  the  pre- 
servative action.  This  point  will  be  reached  for  prunes 
and  figs  when  2}^  pounds  have  been  dried  to  1  pound; 
for  apricots,  peaches,  and  pears,  when  about  5  or  6 
pounds  have  been  dried  to  1 ;  for  grapes,  about  4  pounds 
to  1;  for  beets,  about  7  to  1;  for  turnips,  carrots,  and 
tomatoes,  about  14  to  1;  and  for  onions,  about  16  to  1. 
The  ratio  will  depend  upon  the  original  water  content 
of  the  product  dried.  This  varies  with  the  locality, 
method  of  growing,  degree  of  ripeness,  and  other  con- 
ditions. 

In  practice  the  dried  products  are  not  dried  by  de- 
termining the  loss  in  weight,  but  they  are  dried  until  the 
texture  is  attained  at  which  experience  has  shown  that 
the  product  will  keep. 

14.  Preservation  by  Smoking.    Meats  are  smoked  to 
impart  an  agreeable  flavor  and  to  preserve  them.     The 
preservative  action  is  brought  about  principally  by  the 
antiseptic  effect  of   compounds  of   a  creosotic  nature 


WAYS  OF  PREVENTING  SPOILING  17 

existing  in  the  smoke,  but  is  also  due  in  part  to  the 
drying  effect  of  the  heat  accompanying  the  smoking 
process. 

15.  Preservation  by  Fermentation.     Microorganisms 
usually  cause  spoiling,  but  under  certain  conditions  and 
with  certain  food  products,  their  activity  can  be  utilized 
as  a  means  of  food  preservation.     Preservation  of  foods 
in  this  manner  may  be  accomplished  by  the  action  of  a 
number  of   different   microorganisms,   which    carry  on 
various  sorts  of  changes  in  the  food  product.     These 
^changes  are  designated  as  fermentations,  the  term  in- 
cluding  alcoholic   fermentation,    vinegar   fermentation, 
and  lactic  aeid  fermentation. 

Fruit  juices  may  be  changed  to  wines  and  hard  ciders 
by  yeast  fermentation.  If  air  is  excluded  the  fermented 
products  will  not  spoil,  because  of  the  preservative  effect 
of  the  alcohol,  and  also  because  the  yeast  has  destroyed 
the  sugar  and  other  food  compounds  upon  which  other 
organisms  might  develop. 

Vinegar  is  formed  by  acetic  acid  fermentation  of  al- 
coholic liquids.  This  fermentation  is  carried  on  by 
vinegar  bacteria.  The  acetic  acid  formed  will  preserve 
the  liquid  itself,  or  fruits,  vegetables,  and  meats  stored 
in  the  liquid,  provided  air  is  excluded  after  vinegar 
fermentation  is  over.  The  acetic  acid  of  the  vinegar  is 
the  preservative  agent. 

Lactic  acid  fermentation  occurs  in  the  manufacture 
of  sauerkraut,  fermented  string  beans,  and  similar  fer- 
mented vegetables.  It  is  carried  out  by  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria, which  form  lactic  acid  from  the  sugar  of  the  vege- 
tables. Vegetables  so  fermented  will  keep  indefinitely 
after  lactic  fermentation  is  over,  provided  air  is  excluded. 
Silage  owes  its  keeping  qualities  largely  to  lactic  acid 
formed  by  lactic  acid  fermentation  in  the  silo. 

16.  Exclusion    of    Air.      Certain    food    products    are 
spoiled  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.    Oils  and 


18       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

fats  are  of  this  type.    Such  products  will  not  spoil  if  air 
is  excluded. 

Other  food  products  are  spoiled  by  the  combined  ac- 
tion of  various  microorganisms  and  the  air.  Wine, 
eggs,  and  vinegar  belong  to  this  class.  If  eggs  are  sealed 
with  water  glass  they  will  keep  for  a  year  or  longer.  If 
wine  and  vinegar  are  sealed  in  completely  filled  bottles 
they  will  keep  for  scores  of  years.  Therefore,  the  simple 
exclusion  of  air  may  be  termed  a  means  of  permanently 
preserving  some  food  products. 


PART  II 
METHODS  OF  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


CHAPTER  III 
CANNING  FRUITS 

Fruit  canning  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  food 
preservation  industries.  It  is  no  longer  a  by-product  in- 
dustry, but  is  now  a  primary  industry  for  which  enormous 
quantities  of  fruit  are  grown  annually. 

In  addition  to  the  fruit  canned  commercially,  many 
millions  of  cans  and  jars  are  put  up  each  year  by  house- 
wives in  the  kitchen  or  by  families  who  use  small  scale 
canning  outfits.  It  is  for  those  engaged  in  canning  for 
home  use  or  in  a  small  way  for  local  sale  that  the  follow- 
ing discussion  is  intended,  although  the  principles  in- 
volved will  be  of  interest  to  commercial  fruit  canners. 

The  various  steps  in  the  canning  process  have  been 
taken  up  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  practice  and 
each  is  discussed  separately.  For  convenience  of  refer- 
ence, the  various  topics  taken  up  have  been  numbered 
serially.  The  material  in  this  chapter  is  general  and 
aims  to  give  the  principles  of  canning  and  descriptions  of 
apparatus  used  rather  than  specific  directions  or  recipes. 
Recipes  will  be  found  in  Part  III,  Recipes  1-19,  in- 
clusive. 

1.  Picking.  Fruits  for  canning  should  be  prime  ripe; 
not  over-ripe  and  soft,  or  too  green.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  the  pear.  Pears  should  be  picked  when  full  size, 
but  still  green  and  should  then  be  ripened  in  the  box 
because  tree  ripened  pears  lack  flavor  and  are  coarse  in 
texture.  Under-ripe  apricots  remain  astringent  and 
tasteless  regardless  of  the  amount  of  cooking  or  sugar 
used. 

The  fruit  should  be  handled  carefully  to  prevent 

21 


CANNING  FRUITS  23 

bruising.    Berries  and  soft  fruit  should  be  kept  in  shallow 
boxes  until  canned. 

The  fruit  should  be  taken  to  the  canning  room  as  soon 
as  picked.  In  most  fruits,  there  is  a  rapid  deterioration 
both  in  texture  and  flavor  after  picking. 

2.  Grading  and  Sorting.    The  appearance  of  the  canned 
fruit  is  greatly  improved  by  sorting  the  fruit  according 
to  appearance  and  grading  for  size.     In  home  canning 
all  grading  can  be  done  by  hand  and  at  the  operator's 
discretion.     Where  large  quantities  of  fruit  are  to  be 
graded  for  size,  the  grading  for  size  is  done  by  mechanical 
graders  that  can  be  adjusted  to  different  varieties  of 
fruit. 

In  home  or  small  scale  canning  three  grades  will 
usually  be  sufficient:  "  Fancy, "  consisting  of  the  finest 
and  largest  fruit;  "  Standard/'  medium  sized  fruit,  and 
this  grade  may  also  include  fruit  that  is  more  or  less 
imperfect  in  appearance  but  of  good  size;  "  Pie  Fruit," 
soft,  small,  and  badly  blemished  fruit. 

Grading  is  highly  desirable  if  the  fruit  is  canned  for 
sale. 

3.  Peeling,  Pitting,  Coring  and  Cutting.    Large  fruits 
for  home  canning  are  peeled,  usually  by  hand  with  a 
knife,  although  small  hand  power  peelers  for  apples  and 
peaches  are  available.    The  Pomona  and  similar  types  of 
peeling  knives  fitted  with  a  guard  will  tend  to  prevent 
waste  of  fruit  in  peeling  (Fig.  2). 

Peaches  and  apricots  are  peeled  commercially  by  im- 
mersing them  in  a  boiling  10%  solution  of  soda  lye. 
The  method  is  rather  difficult  to  use  in  the  house- 
hold. A  modification  of  this  method  of  peeling  can  be 
used  on  a  small  scale  as  follows:  Make  a  solution  of  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  soda  lye  per  gallon  of  water.  Use  an 
agateware  or  iron  pot;  never  aluminum.  Heat  to  boiling. 
Immerse  the  fruit  in  a  wire  basket  in  the  hot  lye  long 
enough  (about  20  to  30  seconds'),  to  soften  the  skin. 


24       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Plunge  fruit  into  large  pot  of  cold  water  and  rub  off  skins 
with  the  hands.  Wash  off  all  trace  of  lye  in  another  pot  of 
water.  Vigorous  washing  will  be  necessary  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  lye  from  the  fruit. 

Cherries  are  often  pitted.    Small  hand  pitters  can  be 
bought  at  any  good  hardware  store  for  fifty  cents  to  a 


FIG.  2.  Types  of  Knives  for  Preparation  of  Fruit.  A.  Pomona  peel- 
ing knife  with  guard  to  regulate  thickness  of  peelings.  B.  Peach 
pitting  spoon.  C.  Pear  coring  knife.  D.  Fruit  cutting  knife. 

dollar.  These  same  pitters  can  also  be  used  for  olives. 
The  pitters  consist  of  a  small  plunger  with  a  cross-shaped 
point  that  forces  out  the  pit. 

A  convenient  cutting  knife  for  halving  peaches,  pears, 
etc.,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure. 

The  pits  of  clingstone  peaches  must  be  removed  with  a 
special  pitting  knife  or  "  spoon."  The  flesh  is  first  cut 
along  the  line  of  suture  with  a  cutting  knife.  The  pitting 


CANNING  FRUITS 


25 


spoon  is  then  forced  into  the  peach  at  the  stem  end  and  is 
manipulated  so  that  the  pit  is  cut  from  the  flesh  with  as 
little  loss  as  possible  of  flesh  adhering  to  the  pit.  The 
fruit  is  then  cut  in  half  and  is  separated  from  the  pit. 
Commercially,  the  halves  are  not  peeled  before  pitting  and 
the  peeling  is  done  later  in  a  lye  vat;  in  the  household,  it  is 
advisable  to  peel  cling  peaches 
by  hand  before  pitting. 

Pears  are  hand  peeled;  they 
are  cut  in  half  and  the  core 
removed  with  the  coring  knife 
shown  in  Figure  2-C. 

4.  Jars.  Because  they  can 
be  used  repeatedly  from  year 
to  year,  jars  are  more  satis- 
factory than  cans  for  putting 
up  fruits  in  the  household. 
There  are  numerous  types 
and  sizes  of  glass  jars.  Most 
of  these  give  satisfaction  if 
used  properly.  Their  choice 
is  largely  a  matter  of  personal 
preference. 

The  various  brands  of  jars  that  are  equipped  with  glass 
tops,  rubbers,  and  wire  clamps  are  very  satisfactory  be- 
cause of  their  durability,  their  simplicity,  wide  openings 
for  filling,  convenience  in  sterilizing,  and  because  of  the 
fact  that  no  metal  comes  in  contact  with  the  food  and  it  is 
not  necessary  to  replace  the  caps,  as  is  often  the  case  with 
some  other  types  of  jars.  The  various  modifications  of 
the  Economy  jar  are  excellent,  if  their 'use  is  well  under- 
stood. They  are  sealed  with  a  lacquered  metal  cap 
carrying  a  composition  which  melts  during  sterilization 
and  hardens  to  form  an  air-tight  seal  as  the  jars  cool.  The 
caps  can  be  used  only  once. 

The  ordinary  Ball  Mason  jar  is  probably  the  most 


FIG.  3.  Cherry  Fitter  for  Home 
Use.  (Courtesy  of  Berger 
and  Carter  Company,  San 
Francisco,  California.) 


26       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

commonly  used  of  all  jars.  The  lacquered  metal  caps  are 
superior  to  the  old  style  porcelain  and  zinc  cap.  This 
latter  style  corrodes  in  time  and  becomes  leaky.  .  The 
main  objection  to  the  Mason  jar  is  the  narrowness  of  the 
jar  mouth.  A  wide  mouth  Mason  is  now  on  the  market 
but  the  caps  are  very  difficult  to  remove  and  must  usually 


FIG.  4.  Apple  Peeling  Machine  for  Home  Use. 
(Courtesy  of  Berger  and  Carter  Company, 
San  Francisco,  California.) 

be  replaced  each  year.     The  new  Mason  with  the  so- 
called  "  vacuum  seal  "  is  excellent. 

More  important  than  the  jar  is  the  rubber.  Select 
rubbers  of  the  best  material.  Before  buying,  test  them, 
by  stretching  them  severely.  Brittle  rubbers  will  not 
stand  processing;  they  will  often  spread  and  cause  leaks 
that  result  in  spoiling  of  the  contents  of  the  jar.  Rubbers 
of  good  elasticity  will  often  last  two  seasons.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  good  plan  to  buy  new  rubbers  each  season  rather 
than  to  risk  spoiling  through  the  use  of  old  rubbers.  It  is 
sometimes  possible  to  use  two  old  rubbers  to  each  jar  with 
good  results. 

3.  Wax  Top  Cans.    Three  types  of  cans  are  used  in 


CANNING  FRUITS 


27 


abode 

FIG.  5.  Common  Types  of  Jars,  a,  Glass  top  with  removable  clamp. 
6,  Glass  top  with  fixed  wire  clamp.  (Atlas,  E.  Z.  seal,  etc.) 
c,  Metal  cap,  composition  seal.  (Economy,  etc.)  d,  Metal  cap, 
rubber  seal,  wide  mouth.  (Golden  State,  Mason,  etc.)  e,  Or- 
dinary Ball  Mason. 

home  and  farm  canning.    These  are  the  wax  top  can,  the 
solder  top  can,  and  the  open  top  or  Sanitary  can. 

The  wax  top  can  is  fitted  with  a  groove  around  the 
edge  of  the  top.  The  lid  fits  into  this  and  the  seal  is  made 
after  sterilization  by  pouring  hot  sealing  wax  to  fill  the 
groove  or  by  filling  the  groove  with  a  specially  prepared 
waxed  string.  The  wax  top  cans  are  excellent  for  fruits 


b          c          d         e  f  g 

FIG.  6.  Common  Types  of  Cans  for  Home  Canning,  a,  Solder  top 
can  No.  10  size.  6,  Solder  top  can  No.  3  size,  c,  Solder  top  can 
No.  2  size,  d,  Solder  top  can  No.  1  tall  size,  e,  Solder  top  can 
No.  2^2  tall  square  asparagus.  /,  Solder  top  can,  flat  asparagus. 
g,  Wax  top  can. 


28       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

but  are  not  very  satisfactory  for  vegetables  or  meats,  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  in  sealing  the  cans  while  still 
boiling  hot.  It  is  possible  to  permit  the  cans  to  cool 
slightly  before  sealing  when  used  for  fruit  and  then  no 
difficulty  is  met  with  in  applying  the  wax.  Advantages 
of  the  wax  top  can  are  its  wide  opening  through  which 
large  fruits  and  whole  tomatoes  may  be  filled  into  the 
can  and  the  fact  that  the  cans  may  with  care  be  used 


FIG.  7.  Useful  Utensils  in  Canning,  a,  Measuring 
glass,  8  ounces  capacity.  6,  Half  gallon  measure. 
c,  Household  scale. 

Several  seasons.    The  sealing  is  very  simple  and  requires 
no  special  equipment  or  experience. 

6.  Solder  Top  Cans.  Solder  top  cans  are  closed  with 
solder.  The  cap  of  the  solder  top  can  is  soldered  on  with 
a  special  soldering  steel  after  the  can  is  filled.  It  is  sealed 
by  closing  a  small  vent  hole  in  the  center  of  the  can  with 
a  drop  of  solder.  Two  styles  of  caps  may  be  obtained. 
The  solder  hemmed  cap  has  a  ring  of  solder  attached. 


CANNING  FRUITS  29 

The  lid  is  soldered  to  the  can  by  simply  melting  this  ring 
of  solder.  The  plain  caps  have  no  hem  of  solder  and 
solder  must  be  melted  against  the  capping  steel.  This 
is  wasteful  of  time  and  solder.  Solder  hemmed  cap 
should  be  used  if  they  can  possibly  be  procured.  The 
sealing  of  solder  top  cans  is  described  in  a  recipe  and 
illustrated  in.  Fig.  56. 

7.  Cooking  the  Fruit  before  Filling  the  Containers,  or 
Hot  Pack  Method.  There  are  two  ways  of  canning 
fruits.  These  are  known  as  the  "  cold  pack  "  and  the 
"-hot  pack  "  methods,  respectively.  In  the  cold  pack 
method  the  fruit  is  packed  into  the  jars  or  cans  immedi- 
ately after  peeling,  pitting,  etc.;  sirup  or  water  is  added 
and  the  fruit  is  cooked  in  the  container.  The  fruit  holds 
its  shape  and  flavor  well  in  this  method  but  some  fruits 
contract  a  great  deal  during  sterilization,  leaving  the 
jar  or  can  unfilled.  In  the  hot  pack  method  this  contrac- 
tion takes  place  outside  the  container  and  more  fruit 
can  be  packed  into  each  can  or  jar.  It  is  therefore  a 
more  economical  method  for  home  use. 

The  fruit  is  prepared  for  the  can  by  grading,  peeling, 
coring,  and  pitting  as  the  case  requires.  For  sour  fruits, 
one-half  cup  of  sugar  is  added  to  each  cup  of  fruit;  for 
sweet  fruits  one-fourth  cup;  for  pie  fruit,  no  sugar.  Just 
enough  water  is  added  to  prevent  scorching.  The  fruit 
is  cooked  over  a  slow  fire  with  very  little  stirring  until 
about  half  cooked. 

By  means  of  a  ladle  and  wide  mouthed  funnel  it  is 
poured  into  scalded  jars  or  cans  and  sterilized. 

This  method  differs  from  the  usual  household  "  hot 
pack  "  method  in  which  the  fruit  is  completely  cooked 
before  placing  it  in  the  jars  and  in  which  no  further  cook- 
ing is  given.  The  method  of  cooking  completely  before 
packing  into  cans  or  jars  results  in  considerable  break- 
ing of  the  fruit  and  gives  a  less  attractive  appearing 
product. 


30      HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  8.  Blanching  and  Chilling  Vegetables  before  Canning. 

8.  Filling  Jars  and  Cans  without  Previous  Cooking 
of  the  Fruit — Cold  Pack  Method.  The  fruit  is  prepared 
by  peeling,  coring,  and  pitting.  It  is  packed  into  jars 
or  cans  without  cooking.  Hot  sirup  or  water  is  added 
according  to  the  grade  of  fruit.  Sterilization  and  cook- 
ing are  carried  out  in  the  cans  or  jars.  This  method  is 
used  exclusively  by  commercial  canneries  and  is  recom- 
mended strongly  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  State  Experiment  Stations  for  use 
in  the  household.  It  is  the  least  laborious  of  any  method, 
but  is  not  best  for  household  use,  because  it  does  not 
utilize  all  of  the  space  in  the  jars  or  cans,  because  con- 
siderable shrinkage  occurs  during  sterilization.  Partial 


32      HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


, 


FIG.  10.  Filling  Jars  with  Hot  Brine  or  Sirup  before  Lowering  Them 
into  Sterilizer. 

cooking  of  the  fruit  before  canning  and  sterilizing  gives 
better  results  in  the  kitchen. 

9.  Sanitary  Cans.  This  is  the  type  of  can  used  in 
commercial  canneries.  No  solder  is  used  in  sealing  it. 
The  cap  is  crimped  or  spun  on  by  a  special  machine 
after  the  cans  are  filled. 

The    commercial    sanitary    capping    machine    costs 


CANNING  FRUITS 


33 


several  hundred  dollars  or  is  rented  by  can  companies 
for  about  fifty  dollars  per  season.  A  motor  or  other 
mechanical  source  of  power  is  necessary  to  run  the 
capping  machine. 


FIG.  11.    Gasoline    Fire   Pot  for  Heating 
Soldering  Irons. 

Small  hand  power  capping  machines  costing  from  $13 
and  upward  are  available.  Considerable  skill  and  ex- 
perience are  required  to  make  their  use  a  success.  With 
care  and  practice,  however,  satisfactory  results  can  be 
attained.  Directions  for  the  use  of  these  machines  ac- 


34        HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


company  them.     One  form  of  hand  power  sanitary  can 
capping  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

10.  Sizes  of  Cans.  Cans  for  food  preservation  vary 
in  size  from  about  one-fourth  of  a  pint  to  five  gallons. 
The  sizes  are  usually  designated  by  numbers  rather  than 
by  "  quarts, "  "  pints/7  or  "  gallons."  The  contents  of 
solder  top  cans  and  sanitary  cans  of  the  same  numbers 
do  not  exactly  correspond.  The  following  table  gives 
the  contents  of  the  various  sizes  of  sanitary  and  solder 
top  cans: 

TABLE  1.  DIMENSIONS  AND  CAPACITIES  OF  USUAL  CANS  l 


No. 

SANITARY 

SOLDER  TOP 

Height 

Diameter 

Capacity 

Height 

Diameter 

1 

2 
2*/2 
3 
10 

4           in. 

4V2       " 
411/16    " 
5 

65/i6       " 

23/8  in. 
33/8  " 
4       " 
4l/4  « 

6l/8  « 

11.6  oz. 
21.3  " 
31.2  " 
35.0  " 
107.0  " 

4       in. 
49/i6  " 
43/4    " 

47/8    « 
67/8     " 

2H/16  in. 
33/8     " 
4 
43/i6    " 

6V4      " 

1  From  Circular  158,  University  of  California  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, page  10.  Dimensions  in  inches  and  capacities  in  fluid  ounces. 

11.  Net  Weights  that  Cans  for  Market  Must  Contain. 
Cans  or  jars  of  fruit  for  market  are  packed  according  to 
weight.  The  net  contents  of  the  containers  must  be 
declared  on  the  label  and  the  contents  must  equal  or 
exceed  the  amount  declared.  Commercial  canneries 
provide  counterpoised  scales  and  fill  the  cans  according 
to  weight.  During  sterilization  the  weight  will  decrease 
because  of  the  shrinkage  of  the  fruit  in  the  sirup.  The 
label  must  therefore  state  the  net  contents  based  on 
weight  of  the  fruit  when  the  can  is  opened  after  steriliza- 
tion and  this  must  be  taken  into  account  when  filling 
the  cans. 

Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting  has  done  a  great  deal  of  work  upon 
the  net  contents  of  cans  of  fruit  and  has  published  tables 


CANNING  FRUITS 


35 


FIG.  12.  View  in  Modern  Cannery.    Sealing  Cans. 

showing  the  relations  between  the  fresh  weight  of  fruit 
placed  in  the  cans  and  the  weight  on  the  "  cut  out  "; 
that  is,  when  the  can  is  opened  several  weeks  or  longer 
after  sterilization.  The  weight  immediately  after  steriliz- 
ation will  not  be  the  same  as  that  several  weeks  after 
sterilization  because  of  the  equalization  of  sugar  in  the 
sirup  and  fruit  that  takes  place  slowly  after  sterilization. 
To  determine  the  weight  of  fruit  in  a  can,  the  can  is 
opened  and  the  contents  are  drained  on  a  screen, 
or  ttie  top  is  cut  and  the  fruit  drained  by  inverting  the 
can. 


36       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  contents  are  stated  either  as  net  weight  of  fruit 
or  as  total  weight  of  fruit  and  sirup. 

The  following  table  gives  the  relation  between  the 
weight  of  fruit  placed  in  the  can  before  sterilization  and 
that  some  time  after  sterilization,  for  various  fruits  and 
sizes  of  cans.  The  table  is  based  on  results  published 
by  Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting  in  Department  Bulletin  196  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


TABLE  2.  RELATION  BETWEEN  SIZE  OF  CAN  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  FRUIT 
BEFORE  AND  AFTER  STERILIZATION 


Fruit 

Size  of 
Can 

Sugar 
Per  Cent 
of  Sirup 

Original 
Weight 
of  Fresh 
Fruit 
gms. 

Weight  of  Fruit 
After  Steriliza- 
tion and  Storage 

Grams 

Ounces 

Apricot  

21A 
21A 

VA 

VA 
VA 

V/2 

VA 

VA 

VA 
VA 
VA 
VA 

2^ 

Water 
20 
40 
60 
Water 
20 
40 
60 
30 
50 
50 
40 
30 

550 
550 
550 
550 
560 
560 
560 
560 
560 
550 
500 
560 
550 

545 
548 
556 
513 
535 
545 
558 
514 
544 
426 
357 
550 
518 

18 
18 

18K 
17 
17M 

18M 

18M 
17 
18 

14M 
12 

isji 

17M 

< 

t 

i 

Peach 

t 

f 

Pear  

Loganberry         .... 

Strawberry  
Plum 

Royal  Anne  Cherries 

The  weights  of  fresh  fruit  in  Column  4  may  be  taken 
as  the  proper  amount  to  weigh  into  the  cans  of  this  size 
before  sealing,  if  the  fruit  is  for  market; "because  the 
figures  were  obtained  upon  fruits  packed  in  the  usual 
commercial  way  and  represent  average  conditions.  The 
net  contents  to  be  published  on  the  label  would  be  ob- 
tained from  Column  5.  Five  hundred  and  fifty  grams 


CANNING  FRUITS  37 


corresponds  to  18^  ounces;  560  grams  to  18%  ounces; 
and  500  grams  to  16%  ounces. 

12.  Sirups  and  Hydrometers.  In  commercial  canning, 
fruits  are  packed  in  the  cans  before  cooking.  A  sirup  is 
added  and  the  fruit  is  cooked  in  this  sirup  in  the  can. 
The  sirups  are  made  to  contain  various  percentages  of 
sugar,  according  to  the  various  grades  and  varieties  of 
fruit. 

The  sirups  are  tested  before  use  by  means  of  a  sugar 
hydrometer  or  saccharometer.  There  are  two  general 
makes  of  hydrometers;  namely,  those  which  indicate 
the  per  cent  of  sugar  directly,  and  those  which  indicate 
the  Baume  degree,  which  is  approximately  one-half  the 
real  per  cent  of  sugar.  The  Brix  and  Balling  hydrom- 
eters indicate  actual  per  cent  of  sugar. 

The  hydrometers  consist  of  a  glass  tube  with  a  long 
narrow  stem  at  the  top  and  an  enlarged  lower  end 
weighted  with  shot  or  mercury.  The  upper  stem  carries 
a  scale  marked  either  in  per  cent  sugar  (Balling  or  Brix 
degress)  or  in  degrees  Baume*.  The  instruments  sink 
to  0  in  water.  Liquids  containing  sugar  or  other  ma- 
terials in  solution  exert  a  greater  buoyant  effect  than 
water  and  the  instrument  rises  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  sugar  present. 

To  use  the  instrument,  a  tall  glass  jar  or  cylinder  is 
filled  with  the  sirup.  A  tall  green  olive  jar  or  a  tall  nar- 
row flower  vase  will  do  for  a  cylinder.  The  hydrometer 
is  inserted  and  the  degree  indicated  at  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  is  read.  (See  Fig.  32.) 

The  sirup  should  be  cool  when  the  test  is  made  be- 
cause high  temperatures  cause  the  reading  to  be  too  low. 

The  hydrometer  need  not  be  used  in  household  can- 
ning. Sirups  can  be  made  up  accurately  enough  for 
this  purpose  by  making  use  of  the  following  table.  For 
each  gallon  of  water  used  in  making  the  sirup  weigh  out 
the  amount  of  sugar  given  in  Column  3  of  the  table  and 


CANNING  FRUITS 


39 


dissolve  in  one  gallon  of  water.  To  use  Column  4, 
measure  out  the  amount  of  sugar  indicated  and  dissolve 
in  one  quart  of  water. 


TABLE  3.  AMOUNTS  OF  SUGAR  TO  USE  PER  GALLON  OF  WATER  TO 
GIVE  SIRUPS  OF  VARIOUS  PERCENTAGES  OF  SUGAR  1 


Per  Cent  Sugar 
(Degree  Brix  or 
Balling) 

Degree  Baume 

Amount  of 
Sugar  per 
Gallon  of 
Water 

Number  of 
8-Ounce 
Measuring 
Cups  of  Sugar 
per  Quart 

5  

2.8 
5.5 
8.3 
11.1 
13.8 
16.5 
19.2 
21.9 
24.6 
27.2 
29.8 
32.4 
34.9 

111 
2 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
15 

7c 
15 
b.    8 
2 
13 
10 
7 
10 
14 
6 
4 
10 
11 

z. 

l/s 

3/8 
V2 
3/4 
1 

iVs 

!3/8 
!3/4 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

10 

15.  ..    .,  

20  

25 

30. 

35  

40  

45 

50  

55 

60 

65  

1  From  Circular  158,  University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 
Page  15. 

The  sirup  in  home  canning  is  added  boiling  hot  to  save 
time  in  sterilizing  and  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  "  ex- 
hausting." See  paragraph  14.  The  sirup  may  be  heated 
in  a  teapot  and  poured  directly  into  the  jars  or  cans.  It 
should  be  poured  down  through  the  center  of  fruit  packed 
in  jars  rather  than  against  the  sides  of  the  jar.  This 
will  prevent  breakage.  (See  Fig.  10.) 

13.  Cane  vs.  Beet  Sugar.  An  unwarranted  prejudice 
exists  against  beet  sugar  for  canning.  Cane  and  beet 
sugar  are  one  and  the  same  thing  chemically  and  modern 


40       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

factory  methods  produce  beet  sugar  of  just  as  good 
quality  as  the  best  cane  sugar.  Both  are  used  in  com- 
mercial canneries  with  equally  good  results. 

A  number  of  years  ago  beet  sugar  was  in  some  cases 
poorly  refined  and  occasionally  of  poor  flavor  on  this 
account.  This  condition  no  longer  exists  and  beet  sugar 
can  be  used  for  canning,  jelly  making,  preserves,  mar- 
malades, etc.,  to  just  as  good  advantage  as  cane  sugar. 

14.  Exhausting.  If  fruit  is  put  up  in  solder  top  or 
sanitary  cans  (see  Recipe  1,  Part  III),  the  contents  of 
the  can  should  be  hot  when  it  is  sealed.  In  commercial 
canneries,  this  condition  is  attained  by  heating  the  cans 
and  contents  after  the  can  is  filled  and  before  it  is  closed. 
The  same  effect  is  obtained  in  home  canning  by  adding 
boiling  hot  sirup  or  water  to  the  fruit  in  the  can. 

Exhausting  or  the  addition  of  hot  sirup  expands  the 
contents  of  the  can.  The  can  is  then  sealed  and  sterilized. 
On  cooling,  the  contents  contract  again  and  form  a 
vacuum  in  the  can.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  term  "  ex- 
hausting/' The  vacuum  formed  in  the  can  causes  the 
ends  to  be  drawn  in  slightly.  If  spoiling  should  occur, 
gas  is  formed  in  the  can  and  the  edges  bulge  out.  Thus, 
a  can  of  fruit  with  ends  slightly  drawn  in  is  known  to  be 
good.  This  is  the  principal  reason  for  exhausting  cans, 
or  adding  boiling  hot  sirup  before  sealing  them. 

In  exhausting  solder  top  cans,  the  fruit  and  sirup  are 
placed  in  the  can  cold.  The  cap  is  sealed  on  the  can  as 
directed  in  Recipe  1,  but  the  vent  hole  is  left  open.  The 
cans  are  placed  in  boiling  water  to  about  three-fourths 
the  depth  of  the  cans.  A  washboiler  or  other  sterilizer 
can  be  used.  They  are  left  approximately  five  to  ten 
minutes  depending  on  the  size  of  the  can.  They  are 
then  removed  and  the  vent  hole  is  closed  or  "  tipped  " 
with  a  drop  of  solder.  The  can  is  then  ready  for  process- 
ing. 

To  exhaust  sanitary  cans,  one  proceeds  as  with  solder 


CANNING  FRUITS 


41 


top  cans,  but  does  not  place  the  lid  on  the  can  until  after 
exhausting.  Then  it  is  sealed  in  a  sanitary  capper  such 
as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

15.  Sterilization  of  Fruits.    Sterilization  is  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  living  microorganisms  in  the  product  sterilized. 


FIG.  14.  A  Convenient  Form  of  Washboiler  Sterilizer.  A.  False 
bottom  of  wooden  slats.  B.  Jars  on  false  bottom,  showing  level 
of  liquid  outside  of  jars;  lids  on  loosely.  C.  Tight  fitting  lid 
for  boiler. 

It  is  usually  accomplished  by  heat  and  accompanied 
by  hermetic  sealing  so  that  the  contents  of  the  container 
will  not  become  re-infected  with  microorganisms. 

Fruits,  because  of  their  high  acidity,  are  easily  steril- 
ized by  heat;  a  temperature  of  165°  F.  being  sufficient. 


42       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

However,  since  it  is  usually  desirable  to  cook  the  fruit 
at  the  same  time,  the  sterilization  is  carried  out  at  the 
boiling  point,  i.  e.,  212°  F. 

The  old  household  method  consisted  in  cooking  the 
fruit  in  a  pot  and  pouring  it  boiling  hot  into  scalded  cans 
or  jars  and  sealing  at  once  without  further  treatment. 
This  method  is  unsafe  because  often  the  jars  and  caps 
do  not  get  thoroughly  sterilized  by  the  hot  fruit,  and 
spoiling  results. 

Sterilizing  the  fruits  in  the  container  is  much  safer 
and  more  economical  of  time  and  labor.  Any  form  of 
sterilizer  in  which  the  cans  or  jars  may  be  subjected  to 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water  for  the  desired  length 
of  time  may  be  used. 

A  very  simple  sterilizer  for  home  use  may  be  made 
by  placing  a  false  slat  or  screen  bottom  in  a  washboiler. 
The  jars  rest  on  this  false  bottom  to  protect  them  from 
the  direct  heat  of  the  flame.  (See  Fig.  14.)  A  very 
convenient  frame  for  holding  jars  in  a  washboiler  may 
be  bought  in  the  form  of  a  rack  used  ordinarily  for  boil- 
ing clothes.  Figure  16  illustrates  such  a  rack.  This  also 
acts  as  a  false  bottom.  It  is  improved  by  soldering  a 
wire  guard  on  the  sides  of  the  rack  to  hold  the  jars  in 
place. 

In  using  a  washboiler  sterilizer  the  jars  are  filled  with 
fruit  and  hot  sirup  or  water  is  added,  the  lids  and  rub- 
bers placed  on  loosely,  enough  water  is  added  to  the 
boiler  so  that  when  the  jars  are  placed  in  it  the  water 
will  rise  to  about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  jars,  the 
water  is  heated  to  the  temperature  of  the  jars  or  a  little 
higher,  the  jars  are  placed  on  the  false  bottom,  the 
cover  is  placed  on  the  boiler,  the  water  is  heated  to 
boiling,  and  boiled  for  the  length  of  time  desired  for  the 
particular  fruit  to  be  sterilized.  The  time  is  counted 
from  the  time  the  water  is  actively  boiling.  The  tops  of 
the  jars  are  heated  by  the  steam.  If  the  lid  of  the  boiler 


CANNING  FRUITS 


43 


fits  imperfectly  a  towel  may  be  placed  between  the  lid 
and  boiler  top  to  make  the  seal  more  perfect.  (See 
Fig.  15.) 

The  jars  after  sterilization  are  removed  at  once  and 
the  caps  are  tightened.  If  the  false  bottom  or  rack  is 
equipped  with  handles  the  removal  of  the  hot  jars  is 


FIG.  15.  Washboiler  Sterilizer  with  Cover  Made  Tight  by  Use  of  a 
Cloth.  This  is  a  very  effective  method  of  covering  boilers  that 
have  poorly  fitting  covers. 

greatly  facilitated.     Jar  tongs  may  also  be  used  to  lift 
the  jars  from  the  hot  water. 

The  length  of  time  of  sterilization  will  vary  with  dif- 
ferent fruits  and  with  the  maturity  of  the  fruit.  This 
variation  is  because  of  the  differences  in  texture;  not 
because  some  fruits  are  harder  to  sterilize  than  others. 


44       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Firm  fruits,  such  as  certain  varieties  of  clingstone 
peaches,  and  pears,  require  a  longer  time  than  softer 
fruits,  such  as  most  freestone  peaches  and  plums.  The 
length  of  sterilization  for  various  fruits  is  taken  up 
under  the  recipes  for  each  fruit. 

Various  forms  of  commercially  made  sterilizers  for 
fruits  may  be  purchased.  These  give  satisfactory  re- 
sults and  where  very  large  quantities  of  fruits  are  to  be 
canned  their  use  may  become  desirable.  There  are 
types  of  commercial  sterilizers  designed  primarily  for 
the  sterilization  of  vegetables  and  meats  under  steam 
pressure,  but  which  can  also  be  used  for  fruits.  These 
are  discussed  under  paragraph  21,  Sterilization  of 
Vegetables.  (See  Fig.  18.) 


CHAPTER  IV 
CANNING  VEGETABLES 

As  a  rule,  vegetables  are  more  difficult  to  can  success- 
fully than  are  fruits.  However,  if  the  fundamental 
principles  involved  are  well  understood,  good  results 
may  be  uniformly  obtained  in  canning  all  vegetables 
with  ordinary  kitchen  equipment.  The  difficulties  of 
vegetable  canning  and  methods  of  overcoming  these 
difficulties  are  taken  up  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

A  great  deal  of  interest  has  been  taken  recently  in 
vegetable  canning,  because  of  cases  of  fatal  poisoning 
from  the  use  of  home  canned  vegetables.  These  poison- 
ings have  been  caused  by  a  very  powerful  toxin  produced 
in  jars  or  cans  of  improperly  sterilized  vegetables  by 
the  growth  of  an  organism  known  as  Bacillus  botulinus. 
Experiments  and  experience  have  shown,  however,  that 
the  methods  described  in  this  book  are  perfectly  safe. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  that  the  methods  be  well  under- 
stood and  applied  intelligently. 

16.  Peeling  and  Preparing.  Vegetables  for  canning 
should  be  as  fresh  as  possible.  Waste  no  time  in  getting 
the  vegetable  from  the  garden  into  the  can.  Asparagus 
becomes  tough  and  bitter  if  held  twenty-four  hours. 
String  beans  lose  flavor  and  crispness;  peas  may  ferment; 
and  corn  loses  in  flavor  and  sweetness  if  kept  too  long 
uncanned  after  gathering.  The  vegetables  should  there- 
fore be  canned  on  the  same  day  that  they  are  picked. 

Vegetables  should  usually  be  graded  for  size  and  ap- 
pearance. The  amount  of  grading  will  depend  on  whether 
the  product  is  for  home  use  or  for  sale.  Grade  asparagus 
into  two  or  three  sizes  and  peas  into  young  tender  pods 

45 


46        HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

and  larger,  more  mature  pods.  Other  vegetables  need 
not  be  graded,  unless  for  sale.  In  this  case  select  the 
material  of  best  appearance  for  canning  for  market  and 
the  less  attractive  vegetables  for  home  use. 

The  vegetables  should  be  thoroughly  washed  to  re- 
move earth,  etc.    A  large  tub  may  be  used  for  this. 


FIG.  16.  Closing  Jars  after  Sterilizing,  a,  Convenient  rack  to  hold 
jars  in  sterilizer;  this  is  known  as  a  rack  for  boiling  clothes;  any 
hardware  store  can  get  one  for  you.  The  jars  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  it  and  it  also  serves  as  a  false  bottom.  6,  Pressing 
down  the  clamp  of  a  glass  top  jar.  c,  Jars  cooling. 

In  small  scale  canning  the  peeling,  cutting,  and  prep- 
aration for  the  can  must  in  practically  all  cases  be  done 
by  hand.  Root  vegetables  such,  as  beets,  turnips,  and 
carrots,  may  be  peeled  by  the  peeler  shown  in  figure  43. 
In  canning  factories,  peas  are  threshed  and  graded  by 
machinery,  while  corn  is  silked  and  cut  from  the  cob  by 
special  machines.  Other  vegetables  are  prepared  largely 
by  hand  labor. 

17.  Blanching  or  Parboiling.  Most  vegetables  are 
given  a  short  preliminary  boiling  in  water  after  grading, 
cutting,  and  peeling.  This  improves  the  texture  and 


CANNING  VEGETABLES 


47 


color  and  usually  removes  disagreeable  flavors  and 
mucilaginous  substances  from  the  skins.  The  process  is 
spoken  of  as  "  blanching,"  but  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  parboiling. 

The  prepared  vegetables  are  placed  in  a  screen  basket 
or  in  a  cheesecloth  and  plunged  into  vigorously  boiling 


FIG.  17.  Positions  of  Clamp  on  Glass  Top  Jar  before  and  after 
Sterilizing.  A.  Before  and  during  sterilization.  B.  After 
sterilization. 

water  for  a  length  of  time  varying  from  a  few  seconds  to 
ten  minutes,  the  time  depending  on  the  vegetable  and 
its  degree  of  maturity.  Small  green  peas  will  require 
less  than  a  minute,  while  large  stalks  of  asparagus  may 
require  ten  minutes'  blanching.  Blanching  cooks  the 
vegetables  more  rapidly  than  cooking  in  the  can,  and 
tough  vegetables  can  be  made  tender  with  less  trouble 
in  the  blanching  process  than  in  the  sterilization  process. 
Convenient  methods  of  blanching  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  8.  Tomatoes  are  parboiled  or  steamed  about  one 
minute  and  beets  about  fifteen  minutes  to  cause  the 


48       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  18.  Home  Size  Steam  Pressure  Sterilizer.     (Courtesy  of  Hen- 
ninger  and  Ayes  Company,  Portland,  Oregon.) 

skins  to  slip  off  easily  in  peeling.     They  are  chilled  after 
heating  to  facilitate  handling  in  peeling. 

18.  Chilling.    The  blanched  vegetables  must  be  placed 
in  the  can  with  all  expediency.     To  make  them  cool 
enough  to  handle,  they  should  be  plunged  into  cold 
water  after  blanching.     Chilling  in  this  way  also  sets 
the  color  in  green  vegetables  and  tends  to  make  most 
vegetables  more  crisp. 

19.  Brine  and  Acidified  Brines.    Vegetables,  with  the 
exception  of  tomatoes,  are  canned  in  dilute  brine.  Toma- 
toes are  canned  without  any  liquid  except  their  own  juice. 


CANNING  VEGETABLES 


49 


The  usual  brine  contains  from  two  to  three  ounces  of 
salt  per  gallon.  For  practical  purposes,  an  ounce  is 
equivalent  to  a  level  tablespoonful  of  salt;  this  rule  will 
save  trouble  in  making  up  small  quantities  of  brine. 

Most  vegetables  are  deficient  in  acid  and  if  canned  in 
a  salt  brine  only  are  very  difficult  to  sterilize.  That  is 
to  say,  the  spores  of  the  bacteria  occurring  on  vegetables 
are  very  difficult  to  kill  under  this  condition.  If,  how- 
ever, the  deficiency  in  acidity  of  the  vegetables  is  made 
up  by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  some  harmless 
acid  substance  such  as  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  the  vege- 
tables are  as  easily  sterilized  as  fruits.  For  example,  in 
ordinary  brine,  asparagus  must  be  sterilized  for  at  least 
three  hours  in  boiling  water,  while  if  a  small  amount 
(4  ounces  or  8  tablespoonfuls  per  gallon)  of  lemon  juice 
is  added,  this  vegetable  may  be  sterilized  in  one  hour  or 
less.  Other  vegetables  behave  similarly.  Vinegar  may 
be  used  to  replace  lemon  juice,  although  slightly  more 
is  needed  because  ordinary  vinegar  is  not  quite  so  acid 
as  lemon  juice.  The  following  table  gives  the  amounts 
of  salt  and  lemon  juice  or  cider  vinegar  to  use  for 
various  vegetables. 

TABLE  4.  AMOUNTS  OF  SALT  AND  LEMON  JUICE  OB  STRONG  VINEGAR  FOR 
VEGETABLE  CANNING  BRINES 


Vegetables 

Ounces 
Salt  by 
Weight 
per  Gal- 
lon of 
Water 

Table- 
spoon- 
fuls 
Salt 
per 
Quart 

Ounces 
by  Fluid 
Measure 
of  Lemon 
Juice  per 
Gallon 

Table  - 
spoon- 
fuls 
Lemon 
Juice 
per 
Quart 

Ounces 
Strong 
Vinegar 
by  Fluid 
Measure 
per 
Gallon 

Table- 
spoon- 
fuls 
Strong 
Vinegar 
per 
Quart 

Carrots,  asparagus, 
string  beans,  arti- 
chokes, turnips,  pars- 
nips, okra,  cauli- 
flower     

3 

1 

5 

21A 

6 

3 

Peas  and  spinach  
Corn  

3 
3 

1 
1 

6 

8 

3 

4 

8 
10 

4 
5 

The  advantage  of  this  so-called  "  lemon  juice  "  method 
is  that  the  time  of  sterilization  in  water  at  212°  is  greatly 
shortened  and  made  much  more  certain.  It  is  probably 


50       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

the  most  satisfactory  method  for  home  canning.  The 
amount  used  does  not  materially  affect  the  flavor.  The 
brine  can  be  discarded  when  cans  are  opened  and  the 
vegetables  cooked  in  fresh  liquid  or  a  small  amount  of 
baking  soda  may  be  added..  This  will  remove  practically 
all  taste  of  the  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  should  this  flavor 
prove  objectionable.  Many  vegetables  are  improved 
by  the  addition  of  the  small  amount  of  lemon  juice  or 
vinegar  recommended. 

20.  Addition  of  the  Brine.    The  brine  should  be  added 
boiling  hot  to  cans  that  are  to  be  sealed,  or  the  cans 
should  be  exhausted  in  steam  or  boiling  water  before 
sealing  (see  paragraph  14).     Jars  require  a  shorter  time 
to  heat  if  filled  with  hot  brine.    A  teapot  makes  a  very 
convenient  utensil  for  heating  and  pouring  brines  or 
sirups  into  cans  or  jars.    (See  Fig.  10.) 

21.  Sterilization.    Four  ways  of  sterilizing  vegetables 
are  used.    These  are:  (a)  Sterilization  under  steam  pres- 
sure;   (b)    intermittent   sterilization   in   boiling   water; 
(c)  sterilization  in  boiling  water  by  a  single  long  steriliza- 
tion; and  (d)  sterilization  in  boiling  water  by  a  relatively 
short  heating  after  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  lemon 
juice  or  vinegar  to  the  brine  used  in  canning. 

(a)  Pressure  Sterilization:  The  boiling  point  of  water 
rises  if  steam  is  confined  in  a  closed  space,  and  tempera- 
tures much  above  212°  F.  can  be  attained  in  this  way. 
By  this  means  the  spores  of  many  bacteria  that  are 
killed  with  the  greatest  difficulty  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water  are  destroyed  by  a  few  minutes'  heating 
under  five  to  fifteen  pounds'  steam  pressure.  These 
pressures  correspond  to  228°  F.  and  250°  F.,  respectively. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relation  between  steam 
pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  and  temperature  in 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  table  is  of  use  where  the 
sterilizer  used  may  not  be  equipped  both  with  a  ther- 
mometer and  a  steam  gauge. 


CANNING  VEGETABLES  51 

The  steam  pressure  sterilizer  is  independent  of  altitude 
and  therefore  is  of  value  in  elevated  regions. 

TABLE  5.  RELATION  BETWEEN  STEAM  PRESSURE  IN  POUNDS  PER 
SQUARE  INCH  AND  TEMPERATURE  IN  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT 

Pressure,  Pounds  per  Temperature,  Degrees 

Square  Inch  Fahrenheit 

0 212.0 

1 215.2 

2 218.3 

3 221.3 

4 : 224.2 

5 226.9 

6 229.5 

7 231.9 

8 234.3 

9 236.6 

10 238.8 

11 241.0 

12 243.0 

13 245.3 

14 247.3 

15 249.1 

Several  forms  of  steam  pressure  sterilizers  for  home  use 
are  on  the  market.  There  is  one  known  as  the  "  water 
seal  outfit, "  which  gives  temperatures  only  slightly  above 
the  boiling  point  of  water.  This  is  considered  favorably 
by  many  home  canners;  because  it  requires  only  a  small 
amount  of  water,  is  easily  heated,  and  is  inexpensive. 
Another  type  can  be  operated  only  up  to  five  pounds' 
pressure  per  square  inch.  Most  forms  of  pressure 
cookers  will  withstand  a  steam  pressure  of  15  pounds  or 
more  per  square  inch. 

Steam  pressure  sterilizers  or  retorts  can  be  obtained 
in  sizes  holding  from  two  dozen  cans  to  several  thousand. 
The  small  outfits  are  heated  by  direct  heat;  the  large 
ones,  by  steam  from  a  boiler. 

Steam  pressure  sterilizers  can  be  used  for  sterilization 


52       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

at  212°  F.  by  simply  opening  the  release  cock  and  keeping 
the  pressure  at  0  pounds. 

Steam  pressure  sterilizers  are  well  suited  to  sterilization 
of  cans  but  are  not  convenient  for  jars. 

In  using  the  sterilizer,  seal  the  cans  of  vegetables  hot 
and  place  them  in  the  basket  or  crate.  Add  water  to  the 
depth  of  several  inches.  Lower  the  crate  and  contents 
into  the  retort.  Clamp  the  lid  securely  on  the  sterilizer 
and  leave  the  release  cock  open.  Heat  the  water  to  boil- 
ing and  as  soon  as  steam  escapes  freely  from  the  cock 
close  it.  The  purpose  of  leaving  the  cock  open  at  first 
is  to  allow  the  steam  to  displace  the  air  in  the  retort; 
otherwise  the  pressure  in  the  retort  would  be  due  to 
compressed  air  and  the  temperature  would  be  uneven  and 
not  in  proportion  to  the  indicated  temperature  or  pres- 
sure. Heat  until  the  dial  of  the  steam  gauge  indicates 
the  desired  pressure  or  until  the  thermometer  reaches  the 
desired  temperature  for  the  required  length  of  time  by 
regulating  the  fire  or  by  opening  the  release  cock  suffi- 
ciently, and  by  setting  the  weight  on  the  safety  valve 
so  that  it  will  release  the  steam  automatically  when  the 
proper  pressure  is  reached. 

When  the  cans  have  been  sterilized  sufficiently,  open 
the  release  cock  and  as  soon  as  the  pressure  falls  to  zero, 
remove  crate  and  contents  and  cool  in  a  tub  of  cold  water 
if  cans  have  been  used. 

If  jars  are  used,  leave  the  lids  and  rubbers  on  loosely 
during  sterilization.  Close  immediately  after  removal 
from  the  sterilizer,  but  do  not,  of  course,  chill  the  jars. 
(See  Fig.  18.) 

(b)  Intermittent  or  Three-Day  Sterilization  of  Vege- 
tables at  212°  F.  is  accomplished  by  heating  the  container 
and  contents  to  the  boiling  point  of  water  for  a  specified 
length  of  time  on  several  (usually  three),  consecutive 
days.  It  is  the  most  effective  method  at  212°  F.,  because 
the  bacterial  spores  start  to  grow  between  sterilizations 


CANNING  VEGETABLES  53 

from  the  softening  effect  of  the  heat  and  are  easily  killed 
by  the  second  and  third  sterilizations. 

Cans  are  sealed  hot  and  heated  usually  for  one  hour  in 
boiling  water  or  steam  on  each  of  three  successive  days. 
Jars  are  heated  the  first  day  with  rubbers  removed  and 
caps  on  jars  loosely.  At  the  end  of  the  first  sterilization 
rubbers  are  sterilized  in  boiling  water  about  five  minutes, 
placed  on  the  hot  jars  and  the  caps  are  screwed  down. 
The  second  and  third  days  the  sterilizations  are  carried 
out  without  loosening  the  caps  because  the  vacuum 
formed  after  the  first  day's  sterilization  will  prevent 
bursting  of  the  jars. 

The  three-day  method  is  safe,  but  often  softens  the 
vegetables  so  much  that  they  become  unattractive  in 
appearance. 

(c)  Sterilization  of  Vegetables  at  212°  F.  by  One-Period 
Method:  By  this  method  the  vegetables  are  heated  in 
boiling  water  or  steam  once  only,  but  for  a  long  period  of 
time.     The  method  is  recommended   strongly  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  Farmers' 
Bulletin  839  and  is  in  extensive  use. 

No  pressure  sterilizer  is  used  with  this  method.  It 
sometimes  results  in  softening  of  the  vegetables  from 
overcooking.  Results  of  investigations  by  Dr.  Dickson 
of  Stanford  indicate  that  this  method  does  not  always  kill 
spores  of  certain  bacteria.  Method  "  (2),"  described  be- 
low, requires  a  shorter  time  of  sterilization  and  there- 
fore results  in  a  more  attractive  product. 

(d)  Sterilization  by  the  Lemon  Juice  Method:  If  a 
small  amount  of  harmless  vegetable  acid  in  the  form  of 
lemon  juice  or  vinegar  is  added,  the  brine  vegetables  are 
easily  sterilized  by  a  single  sterilization  at  212°  F.    The 
vegetables  are  best  acidified  by  adding  the  lemon  juice  or 
vinegar  to  the  brine  used  in  filling  the  cans  or  jars.    The 
amounts  to  use  for  various  vegetables  will  be  found  in 
Table  4.    The  method  is  used  as  follows: 


54       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Pack  the  vegetables  in  the  usual  way.  Add  the  hot 
brine  which  has  been  acidified.  Seal  the  cans  and  put 
rubbers  and  caps  loosely  on  the  jars.  Sterilize  in  boiling 
water  or  steam  from  three-quarters  to  two  hours,  depend- 
ing upon  the  vegetable.  Remove  cans  and  chill  in  water. 
Remove  jars  and  seal. 

This  method  does  not  result  in  overcooking  and  retains 
the  color  and  flavor  more  perfectly  than  other  methods. 
It  produces  a  slight  acid  taste  in  some  vegetables.  This 
can  be  removed  before  cooking  for  the  table  by  drawing 
off  the  brine  and  cooking  in  fresh  water  in  the  usual  way 
or  by  adding  a  small  amount  of  baking  soda  before  cook- 
ing for  the  table.  The  method  has  been  proven  safe  and 
free  from  danger  of  botulinus  poisoning. 


CHAPTER  V 
CANNING  OF  MEATS 

Meats  are  seldom  canned  in  the  household,  because  of 
the  great  difficulty  of  sterilizing  them  without  a  steam 
retort,  and  because  of  the  fear  of  serious  or  fatal  poison- 
ing from  the  use  of  improperly  sterilized  meat.  Steriliza- 
tion can  be  safely  accomplished  without  special  equip- 
ment if  care  is  used.  Chicken,  rabbit,  salmon,  trout, 
fresh  pork,  and  other  meats  of  which  there,  for  some 
reason,  may  be  a  surplus,  may  be  preserved  in  attractive 
form  in  this  way. 

22.  Preparation  of  Meats  for  Canning.  Meats  are 
canned  fresh  or  after  curing  or  after  a  preliminary  cook- 
ing. 

Chicken  and  rabbit  are  usually  first  cooked  and  canned 
in  the  boneless  condition  or  in  pieces  as  the  meat  comes 
from  the  roasting  oven  or  fry  pan.  The  fresh  meat  may 
also  be  cut  in  pieces  to  fit  the  containers  and  sterilized 
without  previous  cooking.  By  the  last  process  the  meat  is 
not  usually  so  attractive  as  where  it  is  first  cooked  in 
some  way  before  canning.  A  suitable  sauce  or  gravy 
should  be  added. 

Beef  is  usually  corned  before  canning  (see  Recipe  129) 
and  canned  with  a  gelatin  broth  which  sets  to  a  firm  jelly 
when  the  meat  is  cooked  after  sterilization. 

Fish  is  ordinarily  canned  fresh  after  cutting  to  fit 
the  can.  Various  sauces  or  oil  may  be  used  to  fill  the 
cans,  especially  with  small  fish  such  as  sardines.  Tomato 
sauce  is  also  used  extensively.  "  Kippered  "  fish  is  also 
canned.  This  is  fish  soaked  in  brine  and  smoked  a  short 

55 


56       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

time.  (See  Recipe  139.)  Salmon,  tuna,  shad  roe,  etc., 
are  canned  without  added  liquid. 

23.  Sterilization  of  Meats.  Meats  because  of  their 
low  acidity,  high  protein  content,  and  the  presence  of 
spore-bearing  bacteria,  are  very  difficult  to  sterilize. 
Pressure  sterilizers  or  intermittent  sterilization  are  very 
necessary  in  order  that  fatal  poisoning  from  botulinus 
bacteria  may  not  result.  Mrs.  Thomas  of  San  Francisco, 
now  with  the  Extension  Division  of  the  University  of 
California,  has  made  experiments  in  which  she  sterilized 
chicken  in  a  brine  acidified  with  about  five  ounces  of 
lemon  juice  per  gallon.  She  found  that  the  meat  was 
easily  sterilized  in  boiling  water.  The  method  has  not 
been  tested  sufficiently  to  warrant  a  recommendation  for 
its  general  use.  It  seems  very  promising,  however. 

Meats  should  be  sterilized  under  10  to  15  pounds  pres- 
sure for  one  heating  or  for  !}/£  hours  in  actively  boiling 
water  on  each  of  three  successive  days.  The  one-period 
method  at  212°  F.  is  not  recommended. 


CHAPTER  VI 
STORAGE   AND    SPOILING  OF  CANNED   FOODS 

Canned  foods  should  be  stored  under  proper  conditions 
in  order  that  they  shall  keep  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  results  of  the  spoiling 
of  canned  goods  is  of  great  importance. 

24.  Storage  of  Canned  Foods.     If  intended  for  mar- 
ket,  canned   fruits,   vegetables,   and   meats   should   be 
stored  a  month  or  more  to  be  certain  that  all  goods 
marketed  are  in  sound  condition.     A  cool  dark  storage 
room  is  best  for  permanent  storage,  while  a  warm  room 
is  best  if  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  whether  the  material 
will  keep.     Warm  temperatures  cause  rapid  growth  of 
the  microorganisms  causing  spoiling. 

Fruits  in  jars  will  retain  their  color  better  if  the  jars 
are  wrapped  in  paper  to  exclude  the  light. 

The  storeroom  must  be  dry  to  prevent  molding  of 
jars  and  rusting  of  cans.  Freezing  and  thawing  injures 
the  flavor  and  texture  of  canned  goods;  therefore,  the 
storage  room  should  be  kept  above  the  freezing  point. 

25.  Spoiling  of  Canned  Foods — Botulinus  Poisoning. 
As  stated  in  previous  chapters,  spoiling  is  due  to  the 
growth  of  microorganisms. 

Fruits,  because  of  their  composition,  are  spoiled  by 
molds  or  yeast.  The  spoiling  of  jars  or  cans  of  fruits 
usually  means  imperfect  sealing  and  leaky  containers, 
into  which  yeasts  or  molds  gain  access  after  sterilization. 
As  the  cans  or  jars  cool  after  sterilization  the  contents 
contract,  forming  a  vacuum,  through  which  air  with 
mold  and  yeast  cells  is  drawn  if  the  container  has  a 
small  leak. 

57 


58       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  products  formed  in  a  spoijed  can  or  jar  of  fruit 
are  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide  from  fermentation  of  the 
sugar.  No  poisonous  compounds  are  formed.  The 
carbon  dioxide  gas  will  cause  the  jar  or  can  to  burst  if 
there  is  no  other  way  for  it  to  escape. 

Vegetables  are  spoiled  most  commonly  after  steriliza- 
tion by  spore-bearing  bacteria  not  killed  during  steriliza- 
tion. Corn,  peas,  and  asparagus  are  difficult  to  sterilize 


a  b  c 

FIG.  19.  Normal  and  Spoiled  Cans  of  Food,  a,  Normal.  6,  Swelled 
can.  c,  Can  burst  by  pressure  of  gas  caused  by  fermentation. 
(After  Zavalla.) 

and  often  develop  growths  of  various  resistant  bacteria. 
Vegetables  are  also  spoiled  by  bacteria  gaining  entrance 
through  leaks  after  sterilization.  In  these  cases,  the 
bacteria  are  usually  of  the  lactic  acid  non-spore  bearing 
type,  in  contrast  to  the  non-acid  forming  spore  bearers 
met  with  in  imperfectly  sterilized  cans  of  vegetables. 

Usually  the  products  of  decomposition  in  vegetables 
are  harmless,  although  often  vile  in  taste  and  odor. 
Occasionally,  however,  botulinus  bacilli  spores,  will  be 
present  and  survive  the  heating  process.  These  de- 
velop and  produce  a  very  violent  poison.  Many  fatal 


f 


STORAGE  AND  SPOILING  OF  CANNED  FOODS    59 

cases  have  come  to  the  notice  of  state  boards  of  health, 
where  death  was  caused  by  the  use  of  imperfectly  steril- 
ized corn,  peas,  or  string  beans.  The  poison  is  so  power- 
ful that  a  single  grain  of  corn  from  a  can  heavily  in- 
fected with  botulinus  will  cause  death. 

The  presence  of  botulinus  is  hard  to  detect.  Usually 
a  rancid  odor  will  be  noticed  and  gas  pressure  normally 
develops,  but  the  flavor  may  not  be  objectionable. 

The  poison  is  destroyed  by  heating  the  vegetables  to 
boiling  for  half  an  hour  after  taking  from  the  can. 
Most  fatal  cases  have  resulted  where  the  vegetables 
have  been  used  from  the  can  or  jar  for  salads,  etc.,  with- 
out cooking  thoroughly  before  serving. 

Suspected  vegetables  should  not  be  fed  to  chickens  or 
animals  without  thorough  boiling  because  the  poison  is 
fatal  to  animals  as  well  as  to  human  beings. 

The  cases  of  poisoning  have  occurred  where  vege- 
tables have  been  canned  by  the  hot-pack  method  without 
sterilization  in  the  can.  Where  thorough  sterilization 
by  any  one  of  the  methods  given  in  paragraph  21  is 
employed  there  is  no  danger  from  botulinus.  Tomatoes 
do  not  develop  botulinus.  Other  vegetables  do. 

Meats  spoil  in  ways  similar  to  those  noted  for  vege- 
tables and  there  is  danger  from  botulinus  poisoning  un- 
less the  meats  are  thoroughly  sterilized.  Fish  and  other 
marine  products  are  especially  difficult  to  sterilize  and 
therefore  must  be  canned  with  great  care.  Dr.  Dickson 
of  Stanford  has  done  a  great  deal  of  work  on  the  occur- 
rence of  botulinus  in  food  products,  especially  in  canned 
vegetables. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FRUIT  JUICES 

Refreshing  juices  of  pleasing  flavor  can  be  made  from 
many  fruits.  The  problem  is  one  of  so  preserving  the 
juice  that  as  much  as  possible  of  its  fresh  flavor  and  ap- 
pearance is  retained.  The  most  practical  way  of  ac- 
complishing this  is  by  pasteurization  by  heat  at  tem- 
peratures from  150°  to  180°  F. 

26.  Fruits  for  Juice.  Fruits  for  juice  making  should 
possess  an  agreeable  flavor  and  aroma  and  be  rather 
tart  in  taste.  Very  sweet  fruits  of  low  acid  do  not  make 
attractive  juices.  Grapes  should  possess  an  agreeable 
flavor  and  high  acid.  A  red  color  is  preferred  to  white. 
The  Eastern  varieties  have  these  qualities  in  a  single 
variety.  Two  Calif ornian  varieties  must  be  blended; 
one  furnishing  flavor  and  the  other  color  and  acid. 
Muscat,  blended  with  any  tart  red  wine  grape,  will  give 
the  desired  result.  Concord,  Isabella,  or  other  good 
Eastern  varieties,  used  alone,  give  good  results.  The 
grapes  should  not  be  too  sweet.  A  juice  of  20%  sugar 
and  .8%  to  1%  acid  is  of  the  proper  composition. 

Loganberries  make  an  excellent  juice.  They  should 
be  as  ripe  as  possible. 

Blackberries,  raspberries,  and  strawberries  make 
rather  poor  juices. 

Apple  juice  is  used  in  great  quantities  fresh,  but  a 
relatively  small  amount  is  pasteurized,  largely  because 
apples  may  be  obtained  practically  throughout  the 
whole  year  for  the  production  of  fresh  juice. 

Orange  and  lemon  juices  have  not  been  successes  com- 

60 


FRUIT  JUICES 


61 


mercially,  because  of  the  difficulty  in  retaining  the  flavor 
of  the  fresh  juices. 

Pomelo  or  grape  fruit  juice  has  been  developed  com- 
mercially in  Florida. 

Pineapple  juice  as  now  found  on  the  market  is  attrac- 
tive in 'appearance,  but  very  disappointing  in  flavor. 


FIG.  20.  Small  Crusher  for  Home  Use.     (Courtesy  of  Berger  and 
Carter  Company,  San  Francisco,  California.) 

Pomegranates  produce  a  highly  colored  juice  of  fair 
flavor,  but  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  separating 
the  juice-bearing  seeds  from  the  astringent  pulp. 

Grape,  apple,  loganberry,  and  pomelo  juices  are  all 
easily  prepared  and  are  all  of  very  satisfactory  quality. 
Other  fruits  may  prove  satisfactory  sources  of  juice  as 
methods  of  preparing  the  juice  are  developed  by  in- 
vestigation. 

27.  Crushing.  To  facilitate  heating  of  the  fruit  before 
pressing  and  the  extraction  of  the  juice  the  fruit  must  be 
thoroughly  crushed. 


62        HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


In  the  household  a  small  food  chopper  or  small  fruit 
crusher  may  be  used.  (See  Fig.  20.)  Small  hand  power 
crushers  are  available  for  farm  use.  (See  Fig.  22.)  Larger 
crushers  for  factory  use  are  of  many  types,  sizes,  and 

prices.  Grape  crush- 
ers consist  of  two 
wooden  or  iron  cylin- 
ders revolving  closely 
enough  together  to 
crush  the  fruit  but  not 
the  seeds.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  separate  the 
stems  from  grapes 
after  crushing.  This 
is  done  by  mechanical 
stemmers  or  by  hand 
by  use  of  a  coarse 
screen. 

28.  Heating  before 
Pressing.  The  color 
of  grapes  must  be  dis- 
solved from  the  skins 
by  heating.  Berries 
will  press  more  satis- 
factorily if  heated. 
Citrus  fruits,  pome- 
granates, and  apples 
should  not  be  heated. 
The  crushed  grapes 

should  be   heated  to 
Fio.  21.  Pressmg  Crushed  Fnut.          about    12Qo     to    135o 

F.  by  use  of  an  aluminum  or  agateware  pot.  They 
should  be  stirred  frequently  and  the  temperature  ob- 
served carefully  with  a  dairy  or  other  type  of  ther- 
mometer, that  can  be  conveniently  immersed  in  the 
crushed  grapes.  Grapes  are  allowed  to  stand  twenty- 


FRUIT  JUICES 


63 


four  hours  before  pressing  to  permit  the  color  to  dissolve 
in  the  juice.  The  grapes  may  also  be  heated  by  separat- 
ing the  juice  by  pressing  and  heating  it  to  140  to  150°  F. 
and  returning  it  to  the  skins. 

Berries  should  be  heated  to  about  150  to  165°  F.  and 
pressed  hot. 


•:F!£.  562 

FIG.  22.  Small  Crusher  and  Press  for  Farm  Use.  (Courtesy 
of  Berger  and  Carter  Company,  San  Francisco,  California.) 

29.  Pressing.  The  simplest  press  is  a  heavy  cloth 
bag  which  may  be  twisted.  Small  kitchen  presses  may 
be  had  also.  Various  sizes  and  forms  of  presses  suitable 
for  farm  and  factory  use  may  be  had.  The  hydraulic 
press  is  the  most  commonly  used  commercial  press  and 
gives  the  highest  pressure  of  any  fruit  press. 


64        HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


Pressure  is  applied  directly  to  the  fruit  in  the  "  bas- 
ket "  form  of  press.  In  the  rack  and  cloth  type  the  fruit 
is  held  between  layers  of  heavy  press  cloths.  Wooden 

racks  separate  the 
cloths.  This  type  of 
press  gives  a  clearer 
juice  than  the  basket 
press  but  requires 
more  labor. 

30.  Clearing  the 
Juice.  The  juice 
comes  from  the  press 
cloudy — not  perfectly 
clear.  It  also  con- 
tains proteins  in  solu- 
tion which,  if  not  re- 
moved, are  coagu- 
lated during  pasteuri- 
zation later  and  cause 
the  juice  to  become 
cloudy.  Therefore,  to 
produce  a  juice  which 
will  be  clear  and  re- 
main so  in  the  bottle, 
it  must  be  heated  to 
the  temperature  at 
which  the  juice  is  to 
be  pasteurized  later 
and  must  then  be  fil- 


FIG.  23.  Straining  juice  after  pressing. 
Same  arrangement  may  be  used  for 
separating  juice  from  crushed  soft 
fruits. 


tered  or  otherwise 
cleared.  The  juice 
will  then  clear  more 

satisfactorily  if  it  is  allowed    to  stand  overnight  after 

pressing    and    before    clarifying. 


After    standing    this 


length  of  time  it  may  be  drawn  off  from  the  sediment 
and  cleared  in  any  way  desired. 


FRUIT  JUICES  65 

The  juice  may  be  clarified  by  the  addition  of  egg  white, 
casein,  or  Spanish  clay  before  heating.  These  materials 
are  coagulated  and  settle  out  after  heating,  carrying 
down  with  them  the  suspended  particles  which  have 
caused  the  juice  to  be  cloudy.  Grape  juice  may  be 
clarified  by  any  of  the  above  materials  used  singly;  or 
with  casein  or  egg  white  employed  in  combination  with 
the  clay.  Other  juices  are  best  clarified  by  the  use  of  the 
clay  only.  Casein  may  be  bought  from  a  drug  store  or 
chemical  supply  house.  Spanish  clay  may  be  obtained 
from  chemical  supply  firms. 

The  casein  is  prepared  for  use  by  boiling  together 
three  ounces  of  casein  to  one  ounce  of  sal  soda  in  one 
quart  of  water.  When  dissolved,  this  is  diluted  to  one 
gallon  with  water.  Spanish  clay  is  prepared  for  use  by 
soaking  a  weighed  amount  in  a  measured  amount  of 
water  until  soft.  One  gallon  of  water  is  used  for  each 
pound  of  clay.  When  soft  it  is  worked  into  a  thin,  even- 
grained  mud  with  the  water.  Egg  white  is  mixed  with 
several  times  its  volume  of  water  and  stirred  until  dis- 
solved. Dried  albumen  may  also  be  used. 

In  using  the  clarifying  materials  described  above,  the 
amount  necessary  is  measured  and  added  to  the  juice  and 
mixed  thoroughly  by  stirring. 

The  juice  is  then  heated  to  175°  F.  and  allowed  to  stand 
twenty-four  hours.  Most  of  the  juice  can  then  be 
poured  off  clear  from  the  sediment  or  filtered  easily 
through  a  jelly  bag. 

It  must  be  emphasized  that  clarification  is  not  neces- 
sary for  the  preservation  of  the  juice,  and  results  in  some 
loss  of  flavor.  It  is  not  generally  recommended  for  home 
use.  It  is  only  necessary  in  the  home  production  of 
juice  to  heat  it  to  175°  F.  allow  it  to  cool  twenty-four 
hours,  and  filter  through  a  jelly  bag. 

The  juice  may  be  filtered  through  a  felt  filter  bag 
specially  made  for  small  scale  filtration  or  through  an 


66       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

ordinary  cloth  bag.  Filter  bags  vary  in  size  from  one  to 
ten  gallons  and  cost  from  one  and  one-half  to  ten  dollars. 
Larger  metal  filters  that  are  filled  with  asbestos  or  wood 
fiber  are  used  in  large  scale  filtration,  but  cost  very  much 
more. 

A  box  filled  with  sand  also  makes  a  fairly  satisfactory 
filter.  A  funnel  fitted  with  filter  paper  can  also  be  used. 

Filters  must  be  thoroughly  washed  after  use  to  prevent 
souring.  Juice  is  ordinarily  difficult  to  filter,  unless 
clarified,  and  the  filters  must  be  changed  and  cleaned 
often  during  continued  filtration  to  maintain  them  at  full 
capacity. 

For  home  use  a  rough  filtration  without  a  clarification 
is  all  that  is  required. 

31.  Bottling  and  Canning.  The  previous  operations 
have  prepared  the  juice  for  the  final  container  in  which 
it  is  to  be  stored.  Bottles,  jars,  and  cans  are  all  used  as 
containers.  These  should  be  clean. 

Two  types  of  bottles  are  available:  those  with  plain 
tops  to  be  closed  with  corks  and  those  with  special  tops 
to  be  closed  with  caps  or  crowns.  The  bottles  should  not 
be  filled  completely  and  a  space  of  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  should  be  left  between  the  cork  and  the  juice. 

If  the  bottles  are  to  be  corked,  the  corks  must  be 
sterilized  in  boiling  water  for  ten  minutes  before  they  are 
used.  Ordinary  taper  corks  of  good  quality  may  be 
used,  but  wine  bottle  corks  driven  into  the  bottles  with  an 
inexpensive  apparatus  designed  for  the  work  give  better 
results. 

The  corks  must  be  tied  down  with  a  string  to  hold 
them  in  place  during  pasteurization. 

If  crown  finish  bottles  such  as  soda  water,  beer,  or 
grape  juice  bottles  are  used,  the  crowns  or  caps  are 
crimped  on  by  a  special  machine.  This  costs  from 
five  dollars  upward.  The  crowns  cost  about  thirty  cents 
per  gross  and  are  cheaper  and  more  attractive  in  ap- 


FRUIT  JUICES 


67 


FIG.  24.  Capping  Bottles  with  Small  Hand  Power  Crown 
Capper.    Note  that  bottles  are  not  completely  full. 

pearance  than  corks.  If  any  great  amount  of  juice  is  to  be 
put  up,  their  use  is  recommended. 

Cans  may  be  used  for  the  less  acid  juices,  such  as  grape 
and  apple  juices,  but  are  not  recommended  for  very  acid 
berry  or  lemon  juice,  because  of  the  danger  of  the  solution 
of  tin  in  poisonous  quantities.  Enamel  lined  cans  are 
best  and  sanitary  cans  are  to  be  preferred  to  solder  top 
cans  because  of  the  danger  from  the  action  of  the  juice 
on  the  solder  used  in  sealing  the  latter. 

Cans  may  be  filled  with  hot  juice  at  180°  F.  and  sealed 
at  once  without  further  sterilization.  A  better  plan  is 
to  fill  them  with  warm  (not  hot)  juice,  seal,  and  then 
pasteurize. 


68       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  25.  Sterilizing  Bottles  of  Juice.    Note  that  bottles  lie 
horizontally  and  are  completely  immersed  in  the  water. 

Jars  may  also  be  used.  They  are  filled  with  the  warm 
juice  and  sealed  at  once  with  scalded  caps  and  rubbers. 
The  juices  are  pasteurized  in  the  jars. 

32.  Pasteurization  of  Fruit  Juices.  Fruit  juices  must 
not  be  overheated  but  nevertheless  they  must  be  heated 
to  a  high  enough  temperature  to  insure  their  keeping. 
This  temperature  is  between  165°  and  170°  F.  The 
temperature  must  be  maintained  for  about  twenty 
minutes.  Juice  should  never  be  boiled. 

The  most  convenient  and  certain  way  of  obtaining 
these  conditions  is  to  heat  the  bottles  or  cans  while  they 
are  completely  immersed  in  water. 


FRUIT  JUICES 


69 


\\VVV  i\\\\\\\\v  tvc1 


Ail  I\\\\\\\VU4  EV^^ 


FIG.  26.  Wooden  Vat  with  Steam  Coil  for  Use  in  Sterilizing  Bottles 
of  Juice  or  Cans  of  Food.  A.  Walls  (of  wood).  B.  False  Bot- 
tom. C.  Steam  Coil. 

An  ordinary  wash  boiler  with  a  false  bottom  makes  a 
satisfactory  pasteurizer;  or  any  of  the  factory-made 
home  and  farm  sterilizers  may  be  filled  with  water  and 
used  as  pasteurizers. 

Tip- 

*M 
W 

> 

i 

3— 

//  \U»      «     *      * 

\l 


FIG.  27.  Plan  for  Arrangement  of  Steam  Coil  of  Fig.  26.     Show- 
ing perforations  for  escape  of  steam  for  direct  heating  of  water. 


70       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  28.  Dipping  Ends  of  Bottles  in  Melted  Paraffin  to  Seal 
Corks  after  Pasteurizing.  This  is  not  necessary  if 
crown  caps  are  used. 

See  Fig.  25.  A  larger  pasteurizer  may  be  made  of  a 
wooden  tank  and  steam  coils  as  indicated  in  Figs.  26 
and  27. 

The  sealed  jars,  bottles,  or  cans,  are  placed  in  the 
pasteurizer  and  completely  covered  with  water.  Bottles 
should  lie  horizontally  so  that  the  hot  juice  will  sterilize 
the  corks.  With  a  thermometer  inserted  in  the  water,  it 
is  heated  to  175°  F.  and  maintained  at  this  temperature 
for  twenty  minutes.  The  temperature  in  the  containers 


FRUIT  JUICES  71 

will  be  several  degrees  below  175°  F.  The  bottles  or  cans 
are  then  removed.  The  necks  of  corked  bottles  should 
be  dipped  in  paraffin  or  sealing  wax  as  soon  as  removed 
and  again  when  cool.  Bottles  closed  with  crown  caps 
need  not  be  so  treated. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FRUIT  AND  OTHER  SIRUPS 

Many  fruits  and  other  substances  may  be  used  as 
sources  of  sugary  liquids  which  may  be  evaporated  to 
sirups  suitable  for  cooking  and  table  use.  In  most  cases 
the  ordinary  kitchen  utensils  will  be  all  that  is  required 
in  the  way  of  equipment. 

33.  Sources  of  Sirups.    Maple,  sugar,  beet,  cane,  and 
sweet  sorghum  saps;  grape,  apple,  peach,  prune  and  some 
other  fruit  juices  can  all  be  used  as  sources  of  table  and 
cooking  sirups.     They  can  be  prepared  with  ordinary 
kitchen  equipment.     Such  sirups  will  be  more  or  less 
dark  colored  and  will  not  be  equal  in  flavor  to  the  best 
grades  of  commercially  prepared  table  sirup,  but  still 
very  palatable  sirups  can  be  produced  in  the  home. 

34.  Clearing  the   Juice.     The  juices  should  be  ex- 
pressed as  for  fruit  juices.    The  juice  should  be  made  as 
clear  as  possible   before   concentration  by   heating  to 
boiling  for  a  short  time  with  clarifying  agents  as  de- 
scribed in  paragraph  30  or  by  filtration  after  boiling. 
The  clearer  the  juice  is  before  concentration  the  more 
attractive  will  the  sirup  be.     The  juice  will  filter  more 
rapidly  hot  than  cold. 

35.  Deacidification.      Some  juices  are  improved  for 
table  use  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  acidity  before  con- 
centration.   This  is  especially  true  of  grape,  sorghum,  and 
apple  juices.    Precipitated  chalk  will  combine  with  and 
remove  fruit  acids.    It  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store. 

The  acidity  must  not  be  completely  neutralized  or  the 
sirup  will  be  very  dark  colored  and  of  poor  flavor.  Par- 
tial deacidification  is  best  accomplished  as  follows: 

72 


FRUIT  AND  OTHER  SIRUPS 


73 


The  cleared  juice  is  divided  into  two  portions,  one 
equivalent  to  three-fourths  and  the  other  one-quarter  of 
the  total.  To  each  gallon  of  the  larger  portion  is  added 
an  ounce  of  the  chalk.  It  is  heated  with  constant  stirring 
to  boiling.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  fire  and  allowed 
to  stand  twenty-four  hours.  The  clear  juice  is  poured  off 
from  the  sediment  and  filtered.  The  sediment  may  be 
filtered  to  recover  the  juice  contained  in  it. 


FIG.  29.  Apparatus  for  Sun  Evaporation  of  Fruit  Juices.  A.  Shal- 
low trough  or  pan  to  hold  juice.  B.  Pieces  of  cheesecloth  for 
evaporation  of  juice.  C.  Line  to  hold  cloths.  D.  Posts  for 
support  of  line. 

To  the  treated  juice  is  added  the  untreated  portion. 
This  will  give  a  combined  juice  of  one-fourth  the  acidity 
of  the  original  fresh  juice. 

Juices  of  very  low  acid  need  not  be  treated  with  chalk. 

36.  Concentration.  The  sirup  must  be  boiled  down 
until  it  will  test  70°  Brix  or  Balling  or  37°  BaumS  in 
order  that  it  will  contain  enough  sugar  to  prevent  spoil- 
ing. The  concentration  should  be  carried  out  as  rapidly 
as  possible  in  shallow  vessels  to  minimize  scorching  the 
sirup  and  darkening  the  color. 

Large  factories  carry  out  the  concentrating  process 


74       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

under  a  vacuum,  which  causes  the  juice  to  boil  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  212°  F.  This  prevents  darkening  of 
the  color  and  scorching.  Vacuum  evaporators  are  too 
expensive  for  small  scale  operations  and  the  housewife  or 
farmer  must  use  open  pans  or  kettles. 

The  shallower  the  pan,  the  more  rapid  the  evaporation 
will  be  and  the  less  the  injury  to  flavor  and  color.  A 
large  rectangular  tin  lined  pan  built  in  over  a  brick 
furnace  can  be  used  for  larger  scale  work.  These  pans 
are  usually  so  arranged  by  partitions  that  the  juice  may 
be  added  at  the  upper  end  of  the  pan  and  sirup  will 
flow  from  the  lower  end,  the  excess  water  being  boiled  off 
as  the  juice  flows  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  end. 

During  evaporation,  samples  of  the  sirup  should  be 
taken  and  transferred  to  a  tall  jar  and  tested  with  a 
hydrometer.  A  tall  olive  bottle  or  tall  narrow  can  will 
answer  for  a  hydrometer  jar.  The  hydrometer  may  be 
purchased  from  any  chemical  supply  house  for  about 
fifty  to  seventy-five  cents  or  through  a  drug  store.  The 
druggist  will  usually  order  one  on  request.  The  Brix 
or  Balling  hydrometers  ordered  should  read  from  0  to 
70°  and  the  Baume  from  0  to  50°.  A  glass  cylinder  for  the 
hydrometer,  if  desired,  can  be  obtained  for  about  fifty 
cents.  If  the  purchase  of  a  tester  is  not  deemed  worth 
while  the  sirup  is  simply  boiled  down  to  a  very  thick 
consistency.  It  may  also  be  boiled  down  only  partially 
and  sealed  in  jars  or  bottles  boiling  hot.  If  this  is  done 
the  sirup  will  keep  with  less  than  65%  sugar. 

Sun  Evaporation:  Sirup  may  also  be  made  by  evapora- 
tion in  the  sun  by  the  Waterhouse  method.  The  clear 
juice  is  placed  in  a  broad  shallow  pan  or  in  a  shallow 
wooden  trough.  Above  this  is  hung  a  number  of  lines 
from  which  hang  pieces  of  cheese  cloth.  The  whole  ap- 
paratus is  placed  in  the  open.  The  cheese  cloth  is 
dipped  in  the  juice  and  hung  on  the  lines.  The  air  and 
sun  quickly  dry  the  juice  on  the  cloth  to  a  sirup.  The 


FRUIT  AND  OTHER  SIRUPS  75 

cloths  are  then  dipped  in  the  juice  and  the  sirup  wrung 
out  into  the  juice.  They  are  again  wet  with  the  juice 
and  hung  up  to  dry.  The  process  is  repeated  until  the 
consistency  of  a  heavy  sirup  is  reached.  This  process 
was  developed  by  Addison  G.  Waterhouse,  and  was 
patented  by  him  a  number  of  years  ago.  He  devised  a 
number  of  methods  by  which  the  cheesecloth  was  made 
in  the  form  of  a  long  endless  belt  which  revolved  slowly. 
It  passed  through  the  juice  at  one  end  of  the  circuit 
and  through  rollers  at  the  other  end  which  squeezed 
out  the  evaporated  juice. 

The  method  is  easy  of  application  and  inexpensive. 
(See  Fig.  29.) 

37.  Storing  the  Sirup.  If  concentrated  so  that  the 
juice  will  test  70°  Balling  or  Brix  or  37°  Baume  when 
cold,  the  sirup  may  be  stored  in  any  sort  of  tin,  glass, 
or  wooden  container  without  sterilization.  If  less  con- 
centrated than  this,  it  should  be  poured  boiling  hot  into 
scalded  jars,  bottles,  or  cans,  and  sealed  hot.  It  will 
then  keep  indefinitely. 


CHAPTER  IX 
JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES 

The  production  of  both  jellies  and  marmalades  de- 
pends on  the  same  principles,  and  the  methods  of  manu- 
facture are  similar.  For  these  reasons  they  have  been 
discussed  together  in  this  chapter. 

The  following  paragraphs  give  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples as  well  as  a  discussion  of  various  tests  for  jelly. 


FIG.  30.  The  Pectin  Test.    To  test  suitability  of  fruit  juices  for 
jelly  making. 

These  enable  anyone  at  all  familiar  with  cooking  to  ob- 
tain uniform  results. 

38.  Fruits  for  Jelly.  A  fruit  jelly  depends  for  its  con- 
sistency upon  three  substances.  These  are  pectin  and 
acid,  from  the  fruit,  and  sugar,  which  is  added.  If  any 
one  of  the  three  components  is  lacking  or  too  small  in 
amount,  jelly  cannot  be  made. 

76 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES 


77 


Certain  fruits  are  rich  in  both  pectin  and  acid.  Ex- 
amples are  sour  apples,  crab  apples,  currants,  logan- 
berries, and  lemons.  Jelly  is  easily  made  from  these 
fruits.  Some  fruits  contain  moderate  amounts  of  pectin 
and  acid.  Examples  are  loquats,  oranges,  ripe  apples, 
blackberries,  grape  fruit,  and  some  varieties  of  plums. 
Jellies  can  be  made  from  these  fruits  if  care  is  taken. 
Some  fruits  are  rich  in  pectin  but  low  in  acid.  The  guava, 
quince,  and  fejoia  are  examples.  Acid  fruits  must  be 
added  to  such  fruits.  Other  fruits  are  low  in  pectin  but 
rich  in  acid;  for  example,  rhubarb  and  gooseberries. 
Still  other  fruits  are  deficient  in  both  acid  and  pectin. 
Peaches,  apricots,  prunes,  pears,  strawberries,  and  rasp- 
berries belong  to  this  class.  They  must  be  combined 
with  such  fruits  rich  in  pectin  as  currants,  crab  apples, 
or  sour  apples,  before  jelly  can  be  made  from  them. 
TABLE  6.  SUITABILITY  OF  VARIOUS  FRUITS  FOR  JELLY 


Fruits  Rich  in 
Pectin  and  Acid. 
Jelly  can  be 

Fruits  with  Me- 
dium Amounts 
of  Pectin  and 
Acid.    Will 

Fruits  Rich 
in  Pectin  but 
Low  in  Acid. 

Fruits  Low  in 
Pectin  and 
Acid.    Fruit 

Easily  Made 
from  Them 

make  Jelly  if 
Carefully  Used 

Acid  Fruit 
must  be  Added 

from  Column  1 
must  be  Added 

Sour  apples 

Ripe  apples 

Guava 

Apricots 

Crab  apples 

Blackberries 

Fejoia 

Peaches 

Currants 

Oranges 

Unripe  Figs 

Pears 

Loganberries 

Grape  fruit 

Pie  Melon 

Strawberries 

Lemons 

Loquat 

Raspberries 

Cranberries 

Most  plums 

Sour  plums 

California 

Eastern  varieties 

grapes 

of  grapes 

Sour  cherries 

Quinces 

39.  Preparing  and  Cooking  the  Fruit.  The  fruits  are 
prepared  for  cooking  by  cutting  in  pieces  or  by  crush- 
ing. Berries  and  currants  should  be  crushed.  Other 
fruits  are  cut. 


78       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  31.  The  Thermometer  Test  for  Jellies.  To  determine 
when  jelly  has  cooked  sufficiently.  Boil  to  218  to 
221°  F.,  depending  on  consistency  desired. 

The  pectin  is  held  in  the  tissues  of  the  fruit  and  in 
most  cases  must  be  liberated  by  boiling.  Jellies  can  be 
made  from  currants,  loganberries,  and  cranberries  by 
using  the  juice  obtained  by  crushing  and  pressing  the 
fresh  fruit  without  cooking,  but  even  these  soft  fruits 
give  firmer  jellies  if  boiled  before  extracting  the  juice. 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  79 

In  cooking  the  fruit,  water  must  be  added  to  the  less 
juicy  varieties,  such  as  apples,  plums,  etc.  Only  enough 
should  be  added  to  barely  cover  the  fruit;  if  too  much  is 
added  the  juice  will  be  too  dilute  and  failure  will  result. 
Currants,  grapes,  and  berries  need  no  added  water. 

The  fruits  should  be  cooked  only  until  tender.  For 
apples  this  will  be  ten  to  fifteen  minutes'  boiling.  Berries 
should  only  be  heated  to  boiling.  Oranges,  lemons,  and 
grape  fruit  are  tough  and  require  about  an  hour's  boiling. 
Long  boiling  of  any  fruit  results  in  loss  of  flavor. 

40.  Expressing  and  Clearing  the  Juice.    The  hot  juice 
may  be  pressed  from  the  fruit  or  may  be  allowed  to 
simply  drain  from  the  fruit  through  a  cloth.    The  latter 
method  is  usually  employed  in  the  household.     In  fac- 
tories the  juice  is  pressed  from  the  hot  fruit  with  heavy 
pressure.     If  the  juice  is  merely  allowed  to  drain  from 
the  fruit  through  a  jelly  bag  it  will  be  clearer  than  if 
obtained  by  pressure,   but   pressing  will  give   a  larger 
yield  of  juice  and  the  juice  will  contain  more  pectin. 
Both  methods  may  be  combined  by  allowing  most  of 
the  juice  to  drain  from  the  fruit  through  a  jelly  bag,  fol- 
lowed by  pressing  out  the  juice  from  the  residual  pulp 
in  a  small  press  or  by  twisting  the  jelly  bag  to  exert  pres- 
sure.   Juice  obtained  by  pressure  must  be  filtered  through 
a  bag  several  times  to  clear  it.    If  this  is  done,  very  clear 
bright  jelly  can  be  made  from  it. 

All  fruit  juices  for  jelly  making  should  be  made  as 
clear  as  possible  by  straining  or  filtering. 

41.  Testing  for  Pectin.    If  any  doubt  as  to  the  jelling 
properties  of  the  juice  exists,  it  should  be  tested  for 
pectin.    Failure  can  often  be  averted  by  this  test. 

Obtain  a  small  amount  (a  ten  cent  bottle)  of  grain 
alcohol  from  the  druggist.  To  one  teaspoonful  of  the 
juice  in  a  glass  add  one  teaspoonful  of  the  alcohol  and 
stir  slowly.  If  the  juice  is  rich  in  pectin,  a  very  large 
amount  of  bulky  gelatinous  material  will  form  in  the 


80       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

glass,  almost  turning  the  material  to  a  soft  jelly.  Juices 
moderately  rich  in  pectin  will  give  a  few  large  pieces  of 
gelatinous  material  and  juices  too  poor  in  pectin  to  make 
jelly  will  give  a  few  small  flaky  pieces  of  sediment. 

If  the  juice  proves  poor  in  pectin  it  must  be  blended 
with  a  juice  rich  in  pectin.  See  paragraph  43  for  the 
amount  of  sugar  to  add  to  the  juices  of  various  pectin 
content.  The  less  pectin  the  fruit  contains  the  less  sugar 
can  be  used. 

42.  Testing  for  Acid.    Fruits  rich  enough  in  pectin  to 
give  a  good  jelly  may  not  possess  enough  acid.    No  ac- 
curate simple  household  method  can  be  given,  although 
the  following  test  will  aid  in  judging  of  the  acidity  of 
the  juice. 

To  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice  add  nine  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  water,  and  one-half  teaspoonful  of  sugar.  Mix  in 
a  glass.  Place  in  another  glass  a  little  of  the  fruit  juice, 
but  add  no  water  to  it. 

Compare  the  tartness  of  the  two  liquids  by  taste.  If 
the  fruit  juice  is  not  as  sour  as  the  diluted  lemon  juice 
it  is  deficient  in  acid  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  raise  the 
acidity  of  the  fruit  juice  by  adding  lemon  or  other  sour 
juice. 

With  a  little  practice  and  experience  this  test  can  be 
made  very  useful,  although  it  is,  of  course,  not  very  ac- 
curate. 

43.  Addition  of  Sugar.    The  amount  of  sugar  to  add 
to  the  juice  will  vary  with  the  pectin  and  acid  content 
of  the  fruit.     Juices  such  as  loganberry,  currant,  crab 
apple,  and  sour  apples,  that  are  rich  in  acid  and  pectin, 
will  make  good  jellies  if  one  cup  or  as  much  as  one  and 
one-quarter  cups  of  sugar  are  used  to  each  cup  of  juice. 
In  some  cases  as  much  as  one  and  one-half  cups  of  sugar 
can  be  used. 

With  fruit  juices  only  moderately  rich  in  pectin,  but 
still  of  fair  jelling  quality,  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  sugar 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  81 

may  be  used  and  with  fruits  low  in  pectin,  only  one-half 
a  cup  of  sugar  may  be  used. 

The  reason  for  using  less  sugar  with  fruits  poorer  in 
pectin  is  seen  from  the  following  discussion.  To  make 
jelly,  the  juice  must  finally  contain  a  high  amount  of 
sugar  (55  to  65%),  and  enough  pectin  and  acid  to  form 
a  jelly  with  the  sugar.  Boiling  the  juice  after  adding 
the  sugar  concentrates  the  pectin  by  boiling  off  the  excess 
water.  The  boiling  must  continue  until  the  jelly  con- 
tains 55%  or  over  of  sugar.  The  more  sugar  is  added 
the  less  boiling  is  necessary  and  for  the  same  reason  the 
less  concentrating  of  the  pectin  in  the  juice  takes  place. 
If  a  small  amount  of  sugar  is  added,  more  boiling  down 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  requisite  high  concentration 
of  sugar  and  this  results  in  greater  boiling  down  and 
concentrating  of  the  pectin.  Thus,  if  to  a  cupful  of  juice 
poor  in  pectin  only  a  half  cupful  of  sugar  is  added  the 
juice  must  be  boiled  down  to  a  relatively  small  volume 
and  this  will  so  increase  the  pectin  in  proportion  to  the 
sugar  that  a  jelly  will  usually  result. 

The  sugar  may  be  added  cold  as  there  is  no  special 
virtue  in  warming  it. 

44.  Sheeting  Test  for  Jelling  Point.     The  juice  and 
sugar  should  be  boiled  down  rapidly  in  shallow  pots. 
Long  boiling,  such  as  is  necessary  in  large  amounts  in 
deep  pots,  results  in  loss  of  flavor,  darkening  of  color, 
and  caramelization  of  the  sugar. 

The  juice  must  be  boiled  down  until  it  will  jell  when 
cold.  This  will  be  between  55  and  65%  or  more  sugar, 
depending  upon  the  pectin  content  of  the  fruit.  The 
usual  way  of  testing  this  point  is  to  allow  the  jelly  to 
drip  from  a  large  spoon.  If  it  falls  from  the  spoon  in 
wide  sheets  it  is  considered  done.  It  is  also  usually  done 
when  the  boiling  jelly  forms  large  bubbles  and  appar- 
ently "  tries  to  jump  out  of  the  pot." 

45.  Thermometer  Test.    A  more  accurate  test  is  the 


82       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

thermometer  test.  A  candy  or 
other  good  thermometer  is  kept 
in  the  boiling  liquid.  As  the  j  uice 
boils  down  the  boiling  tempera- 
ture increases.  When  it  reaches 
221°  F.  or  105°  C.,  it  has  reached 
the  proper  point  for  a  stiff  jelly. 
The  thermometer  must  be  kept 
well  immersed  in  the  boiling  juice 
for  this  test.  (See  Fig.  30.) 

When  the  boiling  point  reaches 
221°  F.,  it  merely  indicates  that 
the  jelly  contains  65%  sugar. 
This  will  mean  a  stiff  jelly  that 
will  stand  shipping,  assuming 
that  the  fruit  juice  contains  suf- 
ficient pectin  and  acid.  If  a  less 
firm  jelly  is  desired,  it  should  be 
boiled  only  to  219  or  218°  F. 
Often  for  household  use  such  a 
jelly  is  more  desirable  than  a  very 
stiff  jelly.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered than  these  figures  apply 
only  to  fruits  with  a  sufficient 
amount  of  pectin  and  acid. 

46.  Hydrometer  Test  for  Jell- 
ing Point.  The  various  types  of 
hydrometers  described  under 
"  Sirups  for  Canning  "  (see  para- 
graph 11)  may  be  used  to  test 
the  jelling  point.  Their  use  is 
not  so  convenient  as  that  of  the 
FIG.  32.  Baume  Hydrometer  for  thermometer.  They  are  more 
Ba^mlrd^pendiLro^conslV-  certain  and  satisfactory  than 

ency  desired?  A.   Hydrometer.    4-U~ 
B,  Level  of  liquid  at  which  hy-    tut 
drometer  is  read.     C.  Cylinder 
to  hold  liquid. 


While    the    lelly   IS   boiling    hot, 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  83 

pour  it  into  a  tall  glass  or  tin  or  copper  cylinder.  A  tall 
narrow  twenty-five  cent  flower  vase,  or  a  tall  narrow 
olive  jar,  or  even  a  quart  milk  bottle  will  answer  for  a 
cylinder.  Insert  the  hydrometer  and  read  the  degree  at 
the  surface  of  the  liquid.  When  the  test  reads  32° 
Baume  or  62°  Brix  or  Balling  in  the  hot  juice,  a  stiff 
jelly  will  result  if  the  juice  contains  sufficient  pectin. 
Similarly,  a  "  quivery  "  or  less  firm  jelly  will  result  at 
29°  Baume  or  58°  Balling  or  Brix,  assuming  that  the 
fruit  contains  sufficient  pectin  and  acid. 

47.  Meaning  of  Thermometer  and  Hydrometer  Tests. 
These  tests  simply  indicate  that  the  jelly  contains  a 
certain  amount  of  sugar  and  that  boiling  has  concen- 
trated the  juice  down  to  this  sugar  content.    It  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  one  will  always  obtain  a  jelly  by 
boiling  the  juice  down  to  the  temperatures  or  Baume 
and  Balling  degrees  mentioned  above.     If  the  fruit  is 
deficient  in  pectin  and  acid  or  in  only  one  of  these  constit- 
uents, jelly  cannot  be  made,  regardless  of  the  amount  of 
boiling  taking  place. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  sufficient  pectin  and  acid  are 
present,  the  above  tests  are  very  valuable  in  determining 
the  jelling  point. 

48.  Pouring  and  Cooling  the  Jelly.    Pour  the  jelly  into 
glasses  or  other  containers.     Paper  jelly  containers  are 
now  on  the  market  which  answer  the  purpose  very  well. 
The  glasses  should  be  dry. 

If  the  jelly  is  poured  through  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  or 
tea  strainer  into  the  glasses,  any  coarse  particles  will  be 
removed. 

Allow  the  jelly  to  cool  overnight  before  sealing  with 
paraffin. 

49.  Coating  with  Paraffin.     When  the  jelly  has  set, 
paraffin  should  be  added  to  seal  it.    If  paraffin  is  added 
to  the  hot  jelly  the  jelly  "  sweats  "  or  moistens  the  sides 
of  the  glass  between  the  paraffin  and  the  glass.     This 


84       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

causes  the  paraffin  to  become  loose  so  that  it  no  longer 
protects  the  jelly.  The  hot  jelly  also  decreases  or  con- 
tracts in  volume  as  it  cools — the  paraffin  sets  before 
contraction  ceases  and  is  apt  to  not  fit  down  closely  on 
the  jelly  later. 

If  when  the  jelly  is  cold,  the  inside  of  the  glass  above 
the  jelly  is  wiped  perfectly  dry  with  a  cloth  or  if  the  jelly 
is  allowed  to  stand  until  this  part  of  the  glass  is  abso- 
lutely dry,  the  paraffin  will  adhere  perfectly  when  added. 

Add  the  paraffin  hot  enough  to  sterilize  the  top  of  the 
jelly.  This  will  insure  its  keeping. 

50.  Sterilization  of  Jellies.    If  jellies  contain  less  than 
65%  sugar,  i.  e.,  the  jelly  tests  less  than  32°  Baume  or 
62°  Balling  or  Brix  when  hot,  or  boils  at  less  than  221°  F., 
it  may  ferment  or  mold  unless  sterilized  in  sealed  glasses 
or  jars.    In  the  hot  interior  valleys  of  California  house- 
wives lose  a  great  many  glasses  of  jelly  by  fermentation. 
Under  such  conditions  the  jelly  should  be  boiled  down 
to  the  point  noted  above  or  should  be  placed  in  jars  and 
sterilized.     This  can  be  done  by  pouring  the  hot  jelly 
into  scalded  jars  and  sealing  at  once.    The  glasses  are 
then  immersed  in  water  at  the  simmering  point  for 
fifteen  minutes  to  sterilize  the  rubbers  and  caps.    Such 
jelly  will  keep  under  all  conditions  of  weather. 

51.  Jellies  without  Cooking.    A  few  fruits  are  so  rich 
in  pectin  and  acid  that  jellies  can  be  made  from  them 
without  heating  the  fruit  or  the  juice  and  sugar.    Such 
fruits  are  currants,  loganberries,  and  cranberries. 

Crush  the  fruit  thoroughly  and  press  out  the  juice  with 
vigorous  pressure  to  force  the  pectin  out  of  the  pulp. 
Strain  as  clearly  as  possible. 

Two  methods  may  then  be  used.  By  the  first  method, 
add  one  and  one-half  cups  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  juice 
and  mix  thoroughly  until  the  sugar  dissolves.  Pour  into 
glasses  and  place  the  glasses  in  the  sun  for  several  days 
until  the  jelly  becomes  firm.  The  sun  evaporates  the 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  85 

excess  moisture.     Bright  sunlight  is  necessary.     When 
jelly  has  formed,  seal  with  paraffin. 

Jelly  may  also  be  made  without  sun  evaporation  if 
two  cups  of  sugar  are  added  to  each  cup  of  juice. 

52.  Jelly  Stocks.     The  juice  obtained  by  draining  or 
pressing  the  hot  fruit  after  cooking  may  be  sterilized  in 
bottles  as  directed  for  fruit  juices  (see  paragraph  32)  or 
poured  boiling  hot  into  jars  or  cans  and  sealed  without 
cooking.    This  juice  or  "  jelly  stock  "  can  be  used  by  the 
usual  method  at  any  time  by  adding  sugar  and  boiling 
down  to  the  jelling  point.     This  economizes  on  jelly 
glasses  and  results  in  fresher  flavored  jellies. 

53.  Crystallization  of  Jellies.    Crystals  form  in  grape 
jelly  from  the  separation  of  cream  of  tartar.    There  is  no 
certain  way  of  preventing  this.     It  can  be  greatly  min- 
imized, however,  if  the  juice  is  boiled  down  about  one- 
half  after  pressing  and  is  then  stored  in  bottles  or  jars 
for  about  six  months  before  being  made  into  jelly. 

Crystallization  in  other  jellies  is  caused  by  the  presence 
of  excess  sugar.  This  may  be  caused  by  the  sugar  added 
in  making  the  jelly  or  may  be  caused  by  crystals  of 
glucose,  a  sugar  found  in  all  fruits.  It  can  be  prevented  if 
the  jelly  is  boiled  down  so  that  it  contains  not  more  than 
70%  sugar.  The  use  of  the  thermometer  and  hydrometer 
tests  will  guard  against  this  common  defect  in  jellies. 

54.  Marmalades.    Marmalades  differ  from  jellies  only 
in  the  fact  that  they  have  pieces  of  the  fruit  suspended  in 
the  jelly.    Fruits  for  marmalade  must  be  rich  in  pectin 
and  acid. 

The  principles  of  marmalade  making  are  the  same  as 
for  jelly  making.  First,  a  portion  of  the  fruit  is  boiled, 
pressed,  and  strained  to  give  a  pectin  solution.  Part  of 
the  fruit  is  cut  in  thin  slices,  cooked  till  tender,  and 
added  to  the  juice  obtained  by  boiling  and  pressing. 
Sugar  in  equal  volume  is  added  and  the  mixture  boiled 
down  to  the  jelling  point. 


86       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


Orange  marmalade  is  the  best  known.  Dundee  mar- 
malade is  the  standard.  It  is  made  in  Scotland  from  the 
bitter  Seville  orange  shipped  from  Spain  in  brine.  It 

possesses  the  peculiar  aromatic 
and  bitter  flavor  of  this  orange. 
In  the  United  States  the 
usual  commercial  varieties  of 
oranges,  such  as  the  Naval, 
Valencia,  Mediterranean  Sweet, 
Satsuma,  etc.,  are  used  in  com- 
bination with  lemons.  Lemons 
furnish  the  acid  and  oranges  the 
pectin. 

Grape    fruit    is   also    used    a 
great  deal  for  marmalade,  both 
FIG.  33.  Marmalade  Sliccr.    alone  and  in  combination  with 
Can  also  be  used  for  vege-    lemons. 

tables.  (Courtesy  of  Hen-        Fruits  rich  in  pectin,  such  as 
ninger    and   Ayes    Com-  fe        currants,     and     logan- 

pany,  Portland,  Oregon.)      ,        .  T 

berries  may  be  used  as  source 

of  the  pectin  solution  and  shreds  of  apricots,  peach, 
watermelon  rind,  pear,  quince,  etc.,  may  be  added  to 
produce  the  marmalade  effect. 


CHAPTER  X 
FRUIT  JAMS,  BUTTERS,  AND  PASTES 

These  products  resemble  each  other  in  appearance  and 
method  of  manufacture  and  are  therefore  considered 
together.  Soft  fruit  not  suitable  for  canning  can  often 
be  made  into  the  above  products.  Apple  butter  and 
other  fruit  butters  are  often  made  without  the  use  of 
sugar,  thus  affording  a  way  of  using  certain  fruits  with- 
out the  addition  of  this  otherwise  very  important  item 
in  the  cost  of  fruit  preserving. 

55.  Jams.    Jams  are  made  by  cooking  and  crushing 
the  whole  fruit,  adding  sugar,  and  boiling  a  short  time. 
They  are  usually  not  heavily  spiced  and  are  not  cooked 
for  any  great  length  of  time.    The  fruit  is  not  broken  up 
very  finely.     Apricots  and  berries  and  other  fruits  of 
high  flavor  and  soft  texture  are  suitable.     If  a  large 
amount  of  sugar  is  used,  i.  e.,  enough  so  that  the  jam 
will  contain  over  65%  sugar  after  it  is  cooked,  it  will 
keep  without  sterilization.    It  is  usually  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  either  pack  the  jam  boiling  hot  into  containers, 
and  seal  or  to  sterilize  in  the  containers  because  the 
amount  of  sugar  ordinarily  employed  is  not  sufficient  to 
preserve  the  product  indefinitely. 

56.  Fruit  Butters.    Fruit  butters  differ  from  fruit  jams 
chiefly  in  that  they  are  boiled  longer  than  jams,  are  finer 
grained,  and  smoother  in  texture,  and  are  usually  heavily 
spiced.     It  is  also  customary  to  add  the  boiled  down 
juice  or  sirup  of  the  fruit  to  the  crushed  fruit  to  replace 
a  certain  amount  of  sugar  that  must  otherwise  be  used. 
Many  recipes  call  for  the  use  of  fruit,  fruit  sirup,  and 
spices  only,  no  sugar  being  added. 

87 


88       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  fruit  juice,  usually  equal  in  bulk  to  the  fruit  to 
be  used,  is  boiled  down  to  a  light  sirup  and  the  fruit  is 
then  cooked  down  to  a  thick  consistency  in  the  sirup 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  sugar.  Apple  juice  and 
grape  juice  may  be  used  with  many  varieties  of  fruits, 
and  a  considerable  saving  in  sugar  can  be  so  effected. 

57.  Fruit  Pastes.  Fruit  butters  or  jams  may  be  cooked 
down  slowly  to  as  thick  a  consistency  as  possible  without 
scorching.  They  may  then  be  allowed  to  evaporate 
slowly  on  the  back  of  the  stove  or  in  shallow  dishes  in 
the  sun  to  a  thick  paste.  This  will  keep  without  steriliza- 
tion. 

The  pulp  from  jelly  making  may  be  ground  up  finely 
and  cooked  with  an  equal  quantity  of  sugar  to  give  an 
attractive  fruit  paste.  A  sort  of  confection  can  be  made 
by  spreading  this  on  a  platter  or  shallow  dish  in  the  sun 
and  drying  down  to  a  gelatinous  firm  consistency.  It 
can  then  be  cut  into  cubes  to  be  used  as  candy  or  as  a 
garnishing  for  desserts. 


CHAPTER  XI 
FRUIT  PRESERVES  AND  CANDIED  FRUITS 

Preserves  and  candied  products  both  owe  their  flavor, 
appearance,  and  keeping  qualities  to  the  large  amount 
of  sugar  used  in  their  preparation.  Preserves  are  put  up 
in  a  heavy  sirup  while  candied  products  contain  more 
sugar  than  do  preserves  and  are  packed  dry.  Both  are 
expensive  because  of  the  sugar  necessary  and  the  care 
and  time  required  in  their  preparation. 

58.  Preserves.  Preserves  are  fruits  or  vegetables 
containing  so  much  sugar  in  the  form  of  a  heavy  sirup 
that  they  are  in  the  nature  of  a  confection.  Because  of 
their  exceedingly  high  sugar  content,  sterilization  is  not 
usually  necessary.  Fruits  for  preserves  should  retain 
their  shape  well  during  cooking.  Pears,  quinces,  many 
varieties  of  peaches,  figs,  kumquats,  pineapple,  and 
watermelon  rinds  are  all  good  for  preserves.  For  most 
fruits  it  is  desirable  to  start  cooking  the  fruit  in  a  dilute 
sirup  of  about  30%  sugar,  or  one  cup  of  sugar  to  about 
two  or  three  of  water.  If  too  heavy  a  sirup  is  used  at 
first  the  fruit  is  apt  to  be  tough,  regardless  of  the  amount 
of  cooking  given.  A  dilute  sirup  penetrates  the  fruit. 
When  the  fruit  has  become  tender  enough  in  the  light 
sirup  the  sirup  is  concentrated  by  boiling  down  to  65% 
sugar  or  221°  F.  as  for  jellies.  The  hydrometer  test 
may  be  used  to  test  the  sirup. 

Strawberries  are  often  used  for  preserves,  but  must  be 
handled  with  care.  In  this  case  sugar  equal  in  weight 
to  the  berries  used  is  added.  They  are  cooked  only  a 
short  time  and  left  to  stand  in  the  sirup  until  they  will 
absorb  the  sirup  and  become  plump.  Commercial  fac- 

89 


90       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

lories  add  artificial  color  in  the  form  of  Ponceau  3R  and 
Amaranth  to  give  the  proper  tint  to  the  berries,  because 
the  natural  strawberry  color  soon  fades. 

Preserves  are  packed  hot  into  jars  or  glasses  and  sealed 
with  ordinary  jar  caps  or  with  hot  paraffin. 

Soft  fruits  can  be  used  for  preserves  if  cooked  only  a 
short  time  in  a  heavy  sirup  and  then  left  in  shallow 
dishes  in  the  sun  to  permit  concentration  of  the  sugar 
by  solar  evaporation.  This  method  is  especially  good 
for  strawberry  preserves. 

59.  Candied  Fruits.  Candied  fruits  are  confections 
made  by  impregnating  fruit  with  a  very  heavy  sirup, 
followed  by  draining  and  partial  drying  so  that  the  fruit 
may  be  handled  easily.  They  should  be  glossy  or 
"  glaced  "  in  appearance,  semi  transparent,  of  the  shape 
and  size  of  the  original  fruit;  the  flesh  should  be  free 
from  sugar  crystals  and  the  surface  should  not  be  sticky. 

The  process  is  one  of  covering  the  partially  cooked 
fruit  with  a  dilute  hot  sirup  which  from  day  to  day  is 
gradually  increased  in  sugar  content  until  it  becomes  a 
very  heavy  sirup,  which  impregnates  the  fruit  with  a 
high  sugar  content,  65  to  70%.  The  slow  increase  in 
sugar  is  necessary  to  avoid  shrivelling  and  toughening 
of  the  fruit.  In  order  that  the  shape  and  appearance  of 
the  fruit  may  be  retained,  long  boiling  as  in  making  pre- 
serves is  objectionable.  Whole  fruits,  such  as  cherries, 
apricots,  figs,  etc.,  are  punctured  thoroughly,  through 
and  through,  in  numerous  places  with  coarse  wooden  or 
copper  needles  to  permit  penetration  of  the  sirup.  Large 
pears  and  peaches  are  peeled  and  cut  in  half.  Pine- 
apple slices  from  the  canned  product  are  excellent  for 
candying  purposes.. 

The  fruit  is  then  cooked  until  tender  in  a  dilute  sirup 
made  up  of  glucose  or  corn  sirup.  Karo  Korn  sirup  is 
good  for  the  purpose.  Use  one  cup  of  this  sirup  or  of 
glucose  to  three  cups  of  water. 


FRUIT  PRESERVES  AND  CANDIED  FRUITS     91 

The  fruit  and  sirup  are  allowed  to  stand  twenty-four 
hours  in  this  sirup  in  a  pot  or  stoneware  crock.  A  wooden 
float  will  keep  them  immersed.  On  the  next  day,  the 
sirup  is  poured  off  and  increased  to  30%  sugar  or  15% 
Baume  or  about  a  half  a  cup  of  sugar  is  added  to  each 
six  cups  of  sirup.  The  sirup  is  heated  to  boiling  and 
poured  back  over  the  fruit.  After  twenty-four  hours  it 


FIG.  34.  Placing  Candied  Fruits  on  Wire  Screen  to  Drain. 

is  increased  to  35%  sugar,  or  another  half  a  cup  of  sugar 
is  added  to  each  six  cups  of  sirup  and  the  sirup  again 
poured  boiling  hot  over  the  fruit.  This  is  repeated  with 
a  5%  Balling  or  3%  Baume  or  half  a  cup  sugar  to  6  cups 
of  sirup,  increase  each  day  until  a  sirup  of  68%  Balling 
or  36°  Baume  is  reached,  or  until  the  sirup  is  about  as 
thick  as  honey. 

The  fruit  is  then  drained  on  a  screen  a  few  days  and 
when  dry  enough  to  no  longer  be  sticky  can  be  packed 
in  candy  or  other  pasteboard  boxes. 

A  moderate  amount  of  glucose  in  the  product  prevents 


92       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

hardening  of  the  fruit  and  the  formation  of  crystals  of 
sugar  in  the  fruit.  It  also  gives  a  glossy  appearance  and 
causes  the  fruit  to  remain  semitransparent.  Glucose 
used  alone  produces  a  flat  tasting  product;  hence  the 
desirability  of  using  cane  or  beet  sugar  with  it  as  directed 
above. 


CHAPTER  XII 
FRUIT  DRYING 

Dried  fruit  is  one  of  the  most  concentrated  of  all  fruit 
products  and  one  of  the  simplest  to  prepare.  It  requires  no 
very  expensive  or  special  equipment  when  carried  out  on 
a  small  scale. 

Fruit  is  dried  in  two  ways:  (a)  by  sun  evaporation, 
and  (b)  by  artificial  heat.  The  former  is  used  in  dry 
hot  climates  such  as  prevail  in  California  and  Arizona, 
while  the  latter  must  often  be  used  in  climates  where 
summer  rains  occur.  Both  methods  are  discussed  in  the 
following  pages. 

60.  Importance  of  the  Industry.  Fruit  is  dried  on  a 
very  extensive  scale  in  California,  and  in  this  state  fruit 
drying  is  one  of  the  largest  horticultural  industries.  It 
serves  in  this  state  both  as  a  primary  industry  and  as  an 
insurance  against  low  prices  for  fruit  grown  primarily  for 
canning  or  fresh  shipment.  As  in  other  states,  a  certain 
amount  of  cull  fruit  is  dried,  but  as  a  rule,  the  fruit  used 
is  the  average  orchard  run.  The  raisin  industry  in  Cal- 
ifornia amounts  to  125,000  tons  of  raisins  annually,  and  is 
the  largest  of  the  state's  dried  fruit  outputs.  Prunes, 
figs,  peaches,  pears,  and  apricots  are  also  dried  in  large 
quantities.  The  climate  of  this  state  is  dry  and  hot  with- 
out summer  rains.  This  permits  drying  in  the  sun  and 
accounts  for  the  size  of  the  industry. 

In  other  fruit  growing  regions  of  the  United  States 
artificial  heat  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  drying. 
Drying  fruit  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  convenient 
ways  of  saving  surplus  fruit  crops.  If  well  done  the 

93 


94       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


quality  of  the  product  compares  favorably  with  that  of 

canned  fruit. 

61.  Gathering  the  Fruit.       Drying  does  not  improve 

or  disguise  the  quality  of  the  fruit.    To  obtain  dried  fruit  of 

good  marketability, 
a  good  grade  of 
fresh  fruit  must  be 
used. 

The  stage  of  ripe- 
ness at  which  the 
fruit  is  picked  varies 
with  the  variety. 
Apricots  are  picked 
firm  ripe  —  if  too 
ripe  they  will  melt 
down  to  unattrac- 
tive "  slabs";  figs 
and  prunes  are  al- 
lowed to  ripen  until 
they  drop  from  the 
trees  of  their  own 
accord;  peaches  are 
gathered  when  fully 
ripe,  but  while  still 
firm  enough  to  per- 

FIG.  35.  Knocking  Ripe  Prunes  from  Trees  mit  handling;  pears 
for  Drying. 


size,  but  not  yet  ripe,  and  are  allowed  to  ripen  in  piles 
of  straw  before  drying;  grapes  are  picked  when  fully  ripe; 
apples  for  drying  are  usually  the  packing  house  culls. 
The  riper  the  fruit  is,  the  more  sugar  it  will  contain  and 
therefore  the  larger  the  yield  of  dry  fruit  will  be,  unless 
the  fruit  is  overripe  and  so  soft  that  excessive  loss  occurs. 
62.  Transfer  to  the  Dry  Yard.  The  fruit  should  be 
taken  quickly  to  the  dry  yard  or  evaporator  after  pick- 
ing and  so  handled  that  bruising  does  not  take  place. 


FRUIT  DRYING  95 

Fruit  for  drying  should  be  handled  as  carefully  as  fruit 
for  fresh  shipment,  if  the  best  results  are  expected. 

63.  Cutting  and  Peeling.     Apples  are  peeled,  cored, 
and  cut  into  disks  before  drying.    Other  fruits  are  usually 
dried  without  peeling. 

Peaches  and  apricots  are  cut  in  half  and  pitted  by 
hand.  Pears  are  cut  in  half  lengthwise  before  placing 
on  drying  trays.  They  are  not  peeled  or  cored.  Peaches 
are  sometimes  peeled  before  drying  by  use  of  a  hot  con- 
centrated lye  solution.  The  peaches  are  cut  and  pitted; 
then  immersed  in  a  boiling  10%  soda  lye  solution  for  a 
long  enough  time  to  soften  the  skin  thoroughly.  They 
are  then  passed  through  strong  jets  of  water  that  wash 
off  the  softened  skins  and  remove  the  lye  adhering  to 
the  pit  cavities.  This  method  of  peeling  is  not  easily 
used  on  a  small  scale  and  is  only  recommended  for  large 
dry  yards. 

64.  Dipping  Fruits  before  Drying.    Prunes  are  dipped 
in  a  hot  dilute  lye  solution  a  few  seconds  to  crack  the 
skins  before  they  are  dried.     The  dipping  solution  con- 
tains about  Y^%  of  lye  or  one  pound  per  thirty  gallons  of 
water,  for  the  French  prune,  the  one  most  commonly 
grown.    The  solution  is  more  dilute  for  the  Sugar  Prune 
and  Imperial  Prune,  two  less  important  varieties.     The 
prunes  are  held  in  a  wire  basket  in  which  they  are  im- 
mersed in  the  hot  lye  solution  for  five  to  thirty  seconds, 
or  they  are  carried  through  the  liquid  in  a  perforated 
rotating  drum.     They  are  often  dipped  in  water  or  are 
passed  through  water  sprays  to  remove  excess  lye  and 
adhering  dirt.    The  dipping  checks  the  skins  sufficiently 
to  greatly  increase  the  rate  of  drying. 

Sultanina  and  Sultana  seedless  grapes  are  often  dipped 
in  hot  dilute  (^%)  lye  solution  or  in  sodium  bicarbonate 
solution  to  crack  the  skin  slightly  or  to  remove  the  bloom 
to  facilitate  drying.  The  dipping  in  dilute  lye  is  also 
carried  out  in  connection  with  the  sulphuring  of  Sultanina 


96       HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


FIG.  36.  Dipping  Prunes  and  White  Grapes  in  Boiling 
Solution  before  Drying. 


Lye 


grapes  (Thompson  Seedless).  It  increases  the  rate  of 
absorption  of  the  sulphur  fumes.  Grapes  after  dipping 
in  hot  lye  are  rinsed  in  cold  water  while  those  dipped  in 
cold  sodium  bicarbonate  solution  are  not  rinsed  in  water 
but  are  placed  directly  upon  trays  to  dry. 

65.  Sulphuring  Fruits  before  Drying.  Fruits  darken 
badly,  unless  treated  with  fumes  of  burning  sulphur 
before  drying.  The  darkening  is  due  to  oxidation  of  the 
coloring  matter.  Sulphur  fumes  prevent  oxidation  and 
darkening.  In  some  cases,  for  example  in  Muscat  raisins 
and  prunes,  the  dark  color  is  considered  desirable;  in  others 
the  dark  color  is  objectionable.  Apricots,  pears,  apples, 


FRUIT  DRYING 


97 


FIG.  37.  Upper  View,  Fruit  Dipper  for  Prunes.  Lower  View,  Stack- 
ing Fruit  that  is  nearly  Dry.  This  permits  drying  to  finish  in 
the  shade,  giving  a  more  uniform  product. 

and  peaches  are  usually  "  sulphured  "  before  drying. 
Sulphuring  should  not  be  excessive,  because  the  flavor  of 
the  fruit  is  thereby  injured  and  sulphuring  should  never 
be  employed  to  cover  up  defects. 

In  addition  to  preventing  the  darkening  of  the  color, 
the  sulphur  fumes  act  as  mild  a  preservative  and  tend  to 
prevent  the  molding  and  fermentation  of  the  fruit  during 
sun  drying. 


FIG.  38.  Views  of  Drying  Yards  in   California.     In  lower  figure 
is  shown  a  portion  of  a  field  of  20  acres  of  fruit  trays. 


FRUIT  DRYING  99 

A  great  deal  of  controversy  has  arisen  in  the  past  and 
a  great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  at  present  as  to  the 
effect  of  sulphurous  acid  in  food  products  (sulphurous 
acid  and  sulphur  dioxide  are  other  names  for  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur).  It  is  generally  admitted  that  when 
large  amounts  of  sulphurous  acid  are  eaten  in  food,  injury 
to  health  results;  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  the 
relatively  small  amount  eaten  in  cooked  dried  sulphured 
fruits  is  harmful.  Cooking  drives  off  a  great  deal  of  the 
sulphurous  acid  and  little  remains  in  the  cooked  fruit> 
unless  the  fruit  has  been  badly  over  sulphured. 

The  sulphuring  of  the  fruit  is  accomplished  by  spread- 
ing it  on  drying  trays  and  exposing  the  fruit  and  trays  to 
the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for  the  desired  length  of 
time.  The  room  or  box  in  which  the  sulphuring  is  carried 
out  is  commonly  called  a  "  sulphur  box  "  or  "  sulphur 
house. "  It  may  be  a  small  house  large  enough  to  hold  a 
small  hand  truck  or  carload  of  trays,  or  may  be  so  con- 
structed that  the  trays  may  rest  on  cleats  on  the  sides  of 
the  sulphur  box.  A  very  convenient  form  is  the  so-called 
"  balloon  sulphur  hood."  This  is  a  light  rectangular 
wooden  or  building  paper  covered  box  that  can  be  set 
down  over  a  stack  of  about  one  dozen  trays. 

Sulphur  is  burned  in  a  shallow  pit  inside  the  sulphur 
box  in  the  ground  beneath  the  trays,  or  in  a  container 
outside  the  box  and  the  fumes  are  conducted  into  the 
box  by  means  of  a  flue.  To  ignite  the  sulphur,  a  small 
amount  of  excelsior  or  a  few  shavings  may  be  used.  The 
sulphur  should  be  kept  burning  constantly  for  the  length 
of  time  it  is  desired  to  expose  the  fruit  to  the  fumes. 

Apples  are  sometimes  sulphured  by  passing  them  on  a 
belt  conveyor  through  a  long  box  filled  with  sulphur 
fumes.  Sliced  apples  are  sulphured  for  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes;  apricots,  peaches,  and  seedless  grapes,  three  to 
five  hours,  and  pears,  six  to  forty-eight  hours.  After  sul- 
phuring, the  fruit  is  ready  for  the  dry  yard  or  evaporator. 


FIG.  39.  Small  Fruit  Sulphuring  Box  for  Home  Use.     Note  pears 
cut  in  half  for  drying. 


FRUIT- DRYING 


101 


66.  Trays  for  Sun  Drying.  Wooden  trays  2x3  feet, 
or  3  x  6  feet,  or  3  x  8  feet  are  used  in  sun  drying  fruits 
commercially.  These  are  made  of  sugar  pine  or  other 
tasteless  white  wood.  Redwood  colors  the  fruit.  Shakes 
3"  x  6"  are  nailed  to  side  strips  and  cleats  are  nailed  to 


FIG.  40.  Sulphuring  Fruit  on  a  Large  Scale  in  California.  The 
trays  of  fruit  on  car  in  picture  have  just  been  sulphured  in  the 
sulphur  house  in  the  background. 

the  ends.  In  long  trays,  one  or  two  narrow  strips  of  wood 
are  nailed  lengthwise  near  the  center  of  the  tray  to  act  as 
a  support. 

For  drying  small  amounts  of  fruit,  improvised  trays 
may  be  used.  Cloth  or  paper  will  answer  the  purpose  or 
the  fruit  may  be  placed  directly  on  a  flat  roof. 

67.  Sun  Drying.  A  dry  hot  climate,  free  from  rains, 
is  necessary  for  sun  drying.  Sun  drying  requires  less 


102     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

equipment  and  labor  than  drying  by  artificial  heat. 
There  is  more  tendency  for  darkening  of  the  fruit,  for 
accumulation  of  dust,  and  injury  by  insects  or  mold  than 
is  the  case  in  artificial  drying.  However,  dried  fruits  of 
excellent  quality  are  made  by  this  method, 


FIG.  41.  Muscat  Grapes  Drying  on  Trays  in  the  Vineyard.  Note 
that  trays  are  tilted  toward  sun  and  that  the  grapes  are  stacked 
on  the  trays  in  shallow  layers. 

The  fruit  after  preparation  by  cutting,  dipping,  peel- 
ing, spreading  on  trays,  and  sulphuring,  as  the  case  may 
require,  is  then  exposed  to  the  sun  on  trays  that  are  placed 
on  the  ground.  The  drying  yard  should  be  clean  and 
as  free  from  dust  as  possible. 

Grapes  are  turned  when  about  one-half  dry  by  in- 
verting a  full  tray  over  an  empty  one.  Prunes  are  stirred 
or  turned  several  times  during  drying  to  cause  even 
drying.  Other  fruits  are  ordinarily  not  turned. 

In  case  of  a  shower,  the  trays  are  stacked  in  piles  of  a 


FRUIT  DRYING 


103 


dozen  or  more  trays  each  and  covered  with  empty  trays 
or  with  boards  to  shed  the  rain.  Late  in  the  season  this 
often  becomes  necessary.  During  long  rain  storms  or 
continued  cloudy  weather,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
use  artificial  heat,  or  the  partially  dried  fruit  must  be 


FIG.  42.  Sorting  Dried  Prunes.    The  partially  dried  fruit  and  culls 
are  sorted  out. 

heavily  sulphured  to  prevent  molding  until  there  is 
again  sufficient  sunshine  to  permit  drying. 

The  fruit  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  dry. 
The  texture  of  the  finished  product  should  be  leathery, 
not  hard  and  brittle.  Excessive  drying  results  in  great 
loss  of  flavor  and  makes  the  fruit  difficult  to  cook. 

The  fruit  will  dry  more  uniformly,  the  color  will  be 
better,  and  there  will  be  less  danger  of  its  becoming  too 
dry,  if  the  trays  are  stacked  when  the  fruit  is  about  two- 
thirds  dry.  They  should  be  stacked  so  that  the  air  will 
pass  freely  between  them  and  complete  the  drying. 


104     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

All  of  the  fruit  will  not  dry  at  the  same  rate,  and  when 
most  of  it  is  sufficiently  dry,  it  is  taken  from  the  trays. 
That  which  is  not  dried  sufficiently  is  left  on  the  trays  a 
few  days  longer. 


FIG.  43.  Pomona  Vegetable   Peeler.     This   machine   is  very  useful   in 
peeling  vegetables  for  drying. 

In  good  drying  weather  most  fruits  are  left  four  to  six 
days  in  the  sun,  and  about  the  same  length  of  time  in  the 
stack,  making  a  total  time  of  eight  to  twelve  days. 

68.  Artificial  Evaporation.  The  rate  of  removal  of 
water  by  evaporation  by  sun  or  artificial  heat  depends 
upon  three  factors:  (1)  temperature,  (2)  humidity  of  the 
air,  and  (3)  the  rate  at  which  the  air  passes  over  the  fruit. 
In  many  fruit  growing  sections,  factors  "  1  "  and  "  2,"  or 
both,  are  not  favorable  for  sun  drying,  and  artificial  heat 
must  be  used. 


FRUIT  DRYING 


105 


Evaporators  are  of  many  sizes  and  designs.  An 
efficient  dryer  should  take  into  account  all  three  of  the 
above  principles.  The  temperature  in  the  evaporator 
may  be  raised  to  about  115°  F.  for  most  fresh  fruits  and 


FIG.  44.  A  Home  Made  Dryer  for  Use  above 
the  Kitchen  Stove.  A.  Stove.  B.  Frame 
with  screen  trays.  C.  Support.  (After 
Farmers'  Bulletin  841,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 

140°  F.  for  fruit  that  is. almost  dry.  Temperatures  much 
above  this  cause  scorching  and  severe  darkening  of 
color.  Thermometers  should  be  used  to  record  the 
temperature  in  the  dryer. 

The  humidity  or  moisture  content  of  the  air  passing 
through  the  dryer  is  exceedingly  important.  If  air  is 
saturated  with  water  vapor  it  will  not  cause  drying,  re- 
gardless of  the  amount  used;  therefore,  the  evaporator 


106     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

cannot  be  made  so  long  that  the  air  passing  through 
becomes  oversaturated  with  moisture.  A  rise  in  tem- 
perature greatly  increases  the  power  of  the  air  to  absorb 
moisture.  Thus  air  at  ordinary  temperatures  may  be 
saturated  with  water  vapor,  but  when  heated  to  140°  to 


FIG.  45.  Small  Home  Made  Cabinet  Dryer.    Can  be  used  on 
kitchen  stove. 

175°  F.,  will  again  be  able  to  take  up  a  very  large  amount 
of  moisture.  It  must  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  cool 
before  it  leaves  the  dryer,  or  the  cooling  will  cause  the 
excess  moisture  to  condense  on  the  fruit  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  dryer.  If,  therefore,  the  air  is  well  heated,  it 
will  be  "  dry  "  before  it  goes  into  the  dryer  regardless  of 
its  previous  moisture  content  when  cold. 


FRUIT  DRYING 


107 


The  importance  of  the  volume  of  the  air  passing  over 
the  fruit  is  a  point  often  lost  sight  of  in  building  dryers. 
Air  soon  becomes  saturated  with  moisture.  If  it  is  not 


FIG.  46.  Galvanized  Iron  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Dryer  for  Farm  Use. 
(After  J.  S.  Caldwell,  Extension  Bulletin  27,  Series  I,  State 
College  of  Washington.) 

replaced  with  fresh  air  at  once,  the  saturated  air  passes 
over  the  remaining  fruit  without  causing  drying.  If  the 
air  is  supplied  more  rapidly  than  it  becomes  saturated  with 
water,  drying  proceeds  throughout  the  whole  dryer.  The 


108     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

rate  of  absorption  of  water  vapor  is  greatest  when  the 
warm  air  first  enters  the  evaporator  and  before  it  has  ab- 
sorbed very  much  moisture.  Therefore,  if  the  volume  of 
air  passed  through  is  very  large,  the  rate  of  absorption  is 
greatly  increased,  because  the  air  is  constantly  in  the  con- 
dition in  which  it  most  rapidly  takes  up  water. 

With  these  principles  in  mind,  the  artificial  dryer 
should  be  built  so  that  an  even  temperature,  dry  air, 
and  a  large  supply  of  air  are  maintained. 

A  simple  dryer  for  home  use  can  be  constructed  from  a 
few  pieces  of  galvanized  coarse  mesh  screen.  This  is 
hung  or  placed  on  metal  supports  above  the  stove.  The 
dryer  consists  of  several  of  these  screen  trays  placed  one 
above  the  other  at  about  three-inch  intervals.  (See 
Fig.  44.) 

A  small  cabinet  dryer  can  be  made  of  rough  lumber, 
an  old  stove,  and  a  few  lengths  of  stove  pipe.  (See 
Fig.  45.) 

For  larger  scale  drying,  several  types  of  evaporators 
are  in  use.  The  kiln  dryer  is  one  of  the  cheapest.  A 
floor,  usually  20  x  20  feet,  made  up  of  wooden  strips  with 
spaces  between  for  passage  of  hot  air,  forms  the  drying 
surface  on  which  the  fruit  is  placed.  Beneath  the  floor 
the  flue  or  stove  pipe  from  the  heater  is  placed.  This  is 
led  back  and  forth  across  the  dryer  several  times  to 
distribute  the  heat  under  the  entire  floor.  A  roof  with 
a  large  ventilator  completes  the  dryer. 

The  tunnel  dryer  consists  usually  of  a  wooden  chamber 
12  to  18  feet  long  and  6x3  feet  in  cross  section.  It  is 
sloping.  Hot  air  flues  pass  beneath  it.  The  trays  slide 
in  on  runways  at  the  upper  end  and  are  taken  out  at 
the  lower  end.  The  entering  tray  displaces  one  at  the 
lower  end.  This  dryer  is  used  a  great  deal  for  berries 
and  prunes  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

The  cabinet  evaporator  consists  of  an  upright  heating 
chamber  into  which  the  trays  fit  one  above  the  other. 


FRUIT  DRYING  109 

Heat  is  supplied  at  the  bottom  from  hot  flues  or  from 
steam  pipes.  The  fresh  fruit  is  placed  at  the  top.  As 
a  new  tray  goes  in,  a  tray  of  dried  fruit  is  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  stack,  the  whole  stack  of  trays  auto- 
matically dropping  the  height  of  one  tray.  This  form 
of  dryer  is  used  in  some  apple  drying  sections. 

The  air  blast  evaporator  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
types.  It  is  used  for  grapes  and  prunes  during  rainy 
weather  in  the  central  portion  of  California.  It  consists 
of  a  long  narrow  room  the  width  of  an  eight-foot  tray. 
At  one  end  is  a  large  air  fan.  Back  of  the  fan  is  a  series 
of  very  hot  flues.  The  trays  are  stacked  on  trucks  and 
run  into  the  long  chamber  through  side  doors.  The  fan 
draws  the  hot  air  over  the  flues  and  forces  it  through  the 
drying  chamber  over  the  fruit.  The  rate  of  drying  is 
rapid  and  the  maximum  efficiency  of  the  heat  is  ob- 
tained because  of  the  large  volume  of  air  used. 

Specific  directions  for  temperatures  of  drying,  etc., 
for  various  fruits  will  be  found  in  recipes  in  Part  III. 

69.  Sweating.      Fruit    dries    unevenly,    some    pieces 
being  hard  and  dry  and  others  not  quite  dry  enough 
when  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  has  reached  the  desired  stage 
of  dryness.    The  moisture  content  of  the  outer  layers  of 
the  fruit  is  less  than  that  of  the  center  of  each  piece. 
The  moisture  content  is  equalized  by  storing  the  fruit 
in  bins  or  large  boxes  for  a  time  to  undergo  "  sweating," 
which  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  equalization  of  the 
moisture.    The  sweat  boxes  or  bin  must  be  protected  from 
insects  and  should  be  kept  dry  and  cool.    The  fruit  is  left 
in  the  sweat  boxes  about  two  weeks,  or  until  packed  for 
final  storage  or  market. 

70.  Processing  and  Packing.    Fruit  dried  in  the  sun 
usually   becomes   infested   with   insects   or  insect   eggs 
which  would  later  produce  larvae  with  resulting  loss  of 
the  fruit.    Often  the  fruit  may  become  too  dry  or  may  be 
dusty. 


110    HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Treatment  of  the  fruit  with  boiling  hot  water  for  a 
short  time  will  overcome  the  above  defects.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  placing  the  fruit  in  a  wire  basket  and 
immersing  it  in  boiling  water  for  about  one  minute.  If 
it  has  been  very  dry  it  may  be  packed  at  once;  if  only 
medium  dry  it  may  be  necessary  to  allow  it  to  dry  on 
trays  a  short  time  before  packing. 

Apricots,  peaches,  and  pears  are  sometimes  sul- 
phured for  one  to  three  hours  after  dipping  in  hot 
water.  This  is  often  done  to  permit  the  fruit  to  absorb 
large  amounts  of  water  without  fermenting  or  molding — 
the  sulphurous  acid  acting  as  an  antiseptic.  Its  use  is 
not  to  be  encouraged  in  treating  dried  fruits  for  this 
purpose. 

The  packing  of  dried  fruits  is  an  extensive  industry, 
requiring  rather  elaborate  and  expensive  machinery  and 
a  variety  of  processes,  which  cannot  be  described  or 
discussed  adequately  in  this  volume. 

Raisins  are  dried  to  an  almost  anhydrous  state  at  the 
packing  house;  are  then  stemmed  in  a  special  machine; 
processed  in  hot  water;  and  the  raisins  with  seeds  are 
seeded  in  a  complicated  seeding  machine. 

Prunes  are  graded  for  size  according  to  number  per 
pound.  The  seller  is  paid  on  a  basis  of  eighty  prunes 
to  the  pound.  He  is  penalized  for  all  prunes  requiring 
more  than  eighty  to  the  pound  and  is  paid  a  premium 
for  those  requiring  less  than  eighty  to  the  pound.  After 
grading  they  are  processed  in  hot  water  and  packed. 

Dried  fruit  for  market  is  usually  packed  in  paraffin 
paper  lined  wooden  boxes  of  20  to  50  pounds'  capacity, 
or  in  paper  cartons  of  half  pound  to  one  pound  size. 
Packed  fruit  brings  much  better  prices  than  bulk  dried 
fruit.  Attractive  packages  are  essential  for  successful 
marketing. 

Dried  fruit  for  home  use  should  be  stored  in  insect- 
proof  containers,  away  from  rodents.  Paper  bags,  tight 


FRUIT  DRYING  111 

boxes,  jars,  etc.,  can  be  used.  Ordinary  cloth  or  burlap 
bags  are  not  suitable,  because  it  is  possible  for  insects 
to  deposit  eggs  through  these. 

A  dry  place  should  be  selected  so  that  the  fruit  will 
not  become  moldy. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DRYING  VEGETABLES 

Many  surplus  vegetables  can  be  dried  and  thus  made 
available  for  use  throughout  the  year.  The  methods  are 
similar  to  those  used  for  fruits.  In  regions  of  dry  sum- 
mers, sun  drying  may  be  used;  under  other  conditions, 
artificial  evaporation  must  be  resorted  to. 

Vegetables  contain  from  80%  to  95%  water;  drying, 
therefore,  decreases  the  weight  from  five  to  twenty- 
fold. 

71.  Vegetables  for  Drying.     Certain  vegetables  give 
very  good  products  when  dried;  others  do  not  lend  them- 
selves well  to  this  method  of  preservation  or  are  more 
satisfactory  when  preserved  in  some  other  way,  e.  g., 
by  salting  or  fermentation,  etc.    Corn,  green  peas,  green 
string    beans,    potatoes,    turnips,    carrots,    onions,    and 
tomatoes  may  be  dried  very  satisfactorily.     Artichokes, 
asparagus,    cucumbers,    cabbage,    sweet    peppers,    and 
cauliflower  do  not  dry  well,  and  give  better  results  when 
preserved  by  salting  or  fermentation. 

72.  Preparation.    The  vegetables  should  be  clean  and 
of  good  quality.     Root  vegetables  should  be  washed 
thoroughly. 

Potatoes  must  be  peeled.  Vegetable  peelers  are  avail- 
able for  this  purpose,  for  the  peeling  of  all  root  vegetables. 
These  machines  vary  from  small  kitchen  sizes  to  large 
power  driven  peelers  of  several  tons'  daily  capacity. 
Turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  onions  are  best  peeled 
without  parboiling.  Beets  are  parboiled  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  after  which  the  skin  may  be  slipped 
off  easily. 

112 


DRYING  VEGETABLES  113 

Other  vegetables  are  prepared  as  for  cooking  for  the 
table. 

73.  Blanching.    Certain  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes, 
corn,  and  beets,  are  improved  if  heated  in  boiling  water 
a  short  time  before  drying.     Carrots,  turnips,  onions, 
and  vegetables  of  green  color,  such  as  peas  and  string 
beans,  need  not  be  blanched  because  it  results  in  loss  of 
color  in  these  cases. 

Blanching  is  useful  in  preventing  the  darkening  of 
Irish  potatoes  where  sulphuring  is  not  used.  Potatoes 
contain  a  substance  called  oxidase  which  causes  darken- 
ing when  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  potato  are  exposed  to 
the  air.  This  oxidase  is  destroyed  by  heating  the  potatoes 
through  in  boiling  water.  Vegetables  that  have  been 
blanched  before  drying  are  more  tender  than  those  not  so 
treated  and  can  be  cooked  in  a  shorter  time. 

74.  Sulphuring.     Potatoes  turn  black  in  color  unless 
parboiled  or  sulphured  before  drying.    The  most  attrac- 
tive dried  potatoes  are  made  by  sulphuring  the  sliced 
vegetable  for  twenty  minutes  before  drying.     Any  of 
the  forms  of   fruit  sulphuring  devices   previously   de- 
scribed may  be  used.     Turnips,  tomatoes,  carrots,  and 
onions  are  improved  by  sulphuring.     Other  vegetables 
should   never  be   sulphured   because   of  the   bleaching 
action.    Tomatoes  should  be  sulphured  about  two  hours. 
Potatoes,  carrots,  onions,  and  turnips  for  twenty  minutes. 
The  sulphuring  is  carried  out  after  the  vegetables  have 
been  sliced  and  placed  on  trays. 

75.  Sun  Drying.     The  prepared  vegetables  may  be 
dried  on  trays  in  the  sun  as  described  for  fruits.    Vege- 
tables, with  the  exception  of  tomatoes,  dry  very  quickly. 
They  should  be  allowed  to  become  nearly  "bone"  dry, 
not  merely  leathery  in  texture.     Any  sort  of  tray  may 
be  used,  such  as  those  previously  described  for  fruits. 
(See  paragraph  66.) 

When  the  vegetables  are  nearly  dry,  the  trays  should 


114     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

be  stacked  so  that  drying  will  proceed  more  uniformly 
and  so  that  less  darkening  of  color  will  take  place. 

Peas,  string  beans,  and  other  vegetables  with  much 
chlorophyll  should  be  dried  in  the  shade.  This  can  be 
done  by  exposing  the  vegetables  to  the  sun  on  trays  a 
short  time  and  then  allowing  the  vegetables  to  dry  after 


FIG.  47.  Packing  of  Dried  Vegetables  in  Insect-Proof  Containers. 
Sun  dried  vegetables  should  be  heated  to  150°  F.  in  an  oven  or 
dipped  in  boiling  water  and  dried  again  before  packing,  to  kill 
insect  eggs. 

the  trays  are  stacked.  This  gives  a  brighter  green  color 
than  that  obtained  where  the  vegetables  are  dried  com- 
pletely in  the  sun. 

76.  Artificial  Drying.  Any  of  the  driers  described  for 
fruits  under  paragraph  68  may  be  used  for  vegetables. 
In  large  commercial  dryers  continuous  systems  are 
largely  in  use.  The  prepared  vegetables  pass  on  endless 
metal  cloth  conveyors  or  by  screw  conveyors  through  a 
drying  chamber  through  which  is  circulated  a  strong 
counter  current  of  hot  air.  The  vegetables  are  handled 
largely  by  automatic  machinery  in  order  to  cut  down 


DRYING  VEGETABLES  115 

labor  costs.  The  dried  product  is  pressed  into  bales  or 
boxes  after  drying  to  economize  on  shipping  space. 

Artificial  evaporators  are  necessary  in  many  vegetable 
growing  localities  because  of  fogs  and  rain.  In  general, 
higher  grade  dried  vegetable  products  can  be  made  by 
artificial,  than  by  sun  evaporation. 

Apple  dryers  and  hop  kilns  can  be  used  for  vegetable 
drying  when  not  in  use  for  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  built.  Temperatures  of  drying  and  approximate 
lengths  of  time  required  are  given  in  the  vegetable  drying 
recipes  in  Part  III. 

77.  Processing   Sun   Dried   Vegetables.     Sun   dried 
vegetables  must  be  sterilized  by  steaming  a  short  time  or 
plunging  in  boiling  water  for  about  half  a  minute  or  by 
heating  through  in  an  oven  to  destroy  insect  eggs.    The 
excess  moisture  can  then  be  dried  out  before  packing. 

Artificially  dried  vegetables  do  not  require  sterilization 
if  they  are  packed  soon  after  drying. 

78.  Packing  and  Storing  Dried  Vegetables.    Vegeta- 
bles should  be  packed  in  insect-proof  containers  and 
stored  in  a  dry  place  secure  from  rodents.     Ordinary 
cloth  or  burlap  sacks  are  not  insect-proof;  but  if  the 
dried  vegetables  are  first  wrapped  in  paper  or  placed  in 
paper  bags  they  may  then  be  safely  stored  in  sacks.    It  is 
a  good  plan  to  hang  the  sacks  of  vegetables  from  a 
rafter  so  that  mice  or  rats  will  not  reach  them. 

Dried  vegetables  may  be  pressed  into  cubes  or  bales. 
This  economizes  on  space  and  checks  insect  injury. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE 

Waste  fruits,  inferior  honey,  and  other  sugar  contain- 
ing materials  not  suitable  for  sale  or  use  otherwise  can 
often  be  made  into  satisfactory  vinegar.  The  waste  cores 
and  peels  from  canneries  and  fruit  driers  can  be  turned  to 
profit  in  this  way.  Vinegar  is  used  in  enormous  quanti- 
ties for  ketchup  and  pickles  in  addition  to  the  large 
amounts  used  as  table  vinegar. 

Vinegar  making  is  a  fairly  simple  process,  provided  the 
fundamental  principles  involved  are  well  understood. 

79.  General  Principles.    Vinegar  making  depends  on 
two  fermentation  processes.     The  first  is  a  transforma- 
tion of  sugar  into  alcohol,  and  carbonic  acid  gas  by  yeast. 
The  second  is  the  conversion  of  the  alcohol  into  acetic 
("  vinegar  ")  acid.    The  second  fermentation  cannot  take 
place  before  the  first  and  must  follow  the  first.     If  it 
should  start  before  the  yeast  fermentation  is  complete, 
it  will  stop  the  yeast  fermentation  and  give  an  inferior 
vinegar.    Vinegar  manufacture  depends  on  making  these 
two  fermentations  as  efficient  as  possible,  and  in  keeping 
them  separate.    In  the  following  paragraphs  the  methods 
of  controlling  the  two  fermentations  are  discussed. 

80.  Raw  Materials.     Any  substance  containing  10% 
or  more  sugar,  or  a  substance  easily  changed  to  sugar,  or 
any  fermented  liquid  containing  4%  or  more  alcohol  can 
be  made  into  vinegar  in  the  household.     Industrially 
starch  and  distilled  alcohol  are  also  used.     Fruit  juices, 
dried  fruits,  fruit'sirups,  partially  fermented  jelly,  honey, 
and  spoiled  wine  can  all  be  used.    Watermelons  do  not 
contain  enough  sugar. 

116 


VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE 


117 


81.  Crushing  Fruits  for  Vinegar.  Fruits  used  for 
vinegar  should  be  thoroughly  crushed  in  a  food  chopper 
or  fruit  crusher.  The  crushed  fruit  should  be  placed  in  a 
crock  or  wooden  barrel,  for  yeast  fermentation,  before 
pressing.  Grapes  and  berries  in  small  lots  are  easily 


FIG.  48.  Fermenting  Vats  Used  in  Large  Scale   Manufacture  of 
Vinegar  from  Fruits. 

crushed  by  the  hands.  Very  ripe  peaches,  pears,  apri- 
cots, and  plums,  are  easily  crushed  with  the  hands  or 
with  a  potato  masher.  Apples  require  the  use  of  a  crusher 
or  grinder.  Yeast  should  be  added  to  the  crushed  fruit. 
See  paragraph  84  on  addition  of  yeast. 

82.  Diluting  Honey.  To  each  cup  of  honey  add  four 
cups  of  water  and  one-half  a  cup  of  any  fruit  juice. 
Honey  does  not  ordinarily  contain  enough  yeast  food  to 
cause  a  good  fermentation.  The  fruit  juice  furnishes  this 
necessary  food.  Yeast  must  be  added  as  directed  in 
paragraph  84. 


118     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

83.  Preparation  of  Fruit  Cores  and  Peels  and  Dried 
Fruits  for  Vinegar  Making.    Cores  and  peels,  give  good 
results  if  two  cups  of  water  is  added  to  each  cup  of  fruit, 
the  mixture  boiled  until  the  fruit  is  tender,  pressed  and 
sweetened  with  one  half  a  cup  of  sugar  to  each  four  cups  of 
juice.    Dried  fruits  contain  about  60%  of  sugar.    They 
may  be  used  for  vinegar  making  if  four  pints  of  water  is 
added  to  each  pound  of  fruit.    The  mixture  is  allowed  to 
soak  twenty-four  hours.    It  is  then  heated  to  boiling  and 
allowed  to  cool.    The  fruit  may  then  be  pressed  and  the 
resulting  juice  used  for  vinegar.    Yeast  should  be  added 
in  the  way  described  in  paragraph  84. 

84.  Addition  of  Yeast  and  Control  of  Alcoholic  Fer- 
mentation.    The  crushed  fruit,  diluted  honey,  and  fruit 
juice  prepared  as  described  in  paragraphs  81,  82,  and  83 
must  be  allowed  to  pass  through  an  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion.    This  is  caused  by  yeast.     The  materials  contain 
yeast   that  will    cause   fermentation,    but   usually   the 
fermentation  will  be  very  poor  and  an  inferior  product 
will  usually  result  because  the  yeasts  naturally  present 
are  not  of  the  proper  varieties.     Therefore,  good  yeast 
should  be  added. 

All  containers  and  other  utensils  coming  in  contact 
with  the  juices  or  fruits  must  be  clean.  Never  under  any 
circumstances  add  vinegar  or  vinegar  mother  to  fresh 
juices  before  fermentation.  They  should  only  be  added 
after  yeast  fermentation  is  complete. 

If  large  amounts  of  vinegar  are  to  be  made,  suitable 
yeast  may  be  obtained  from  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California.  This  will 
be  sent  for  one  dollar,  prepaid,  with  directions  for  use. 
It  is  more  satisfactory  than  bread  yeast. 

To  crushed  fruit,  compressed  yeast  is  added  at  the 
rate  of  one  cake  per  three  gallons  of  crushed  fruit.  The 
yeast  must  be  broken  up  thoroughly  in  the  juice  or 
crushed  fruit.  This  can  be  done  by  mixing  the  yeast 


VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE  119 

with  a  little  juice  or  water  and  then  stirring  the  yeasty 
liquid  in  with  the  crushed  fruit. 

Fruit  juices  and  diluted  honey  are  allowed  to  ferment 
until  there  is  no  longer  any  gas  given  off  and  until  all 
taste  of  sugar  disappears.  This  will  be  in  about  three 
weeks  at  room  temperature. 

Crushed  fruits  should  be  allowed  to  ferment  about  a 
week.  This  will  soften  them  so  that  the  juice  may  be 
pressed  out  easily.  During  fermentation,  the  crushed 
fruit  should  be  stirred  frequently  and  should  be  screened 
or  covered  with  a  cloth  to  keep  out  vinegar  flies.  The 
fruits  are  then  pressed  and  the  juice  allowed  to  ferment 
until  all  the  sugar  is  destroyed.  Yeast  fermentation 
proceeds  most  rapidly  at  warm  temperatures.  A  tem- 
perature of  about  80°  to  90°  F.  is  the  most  favorable. 
At  temperatures  above  105°  F.,  fermentation  ceases  and 
at  temperatures  below  60°  F.,  it  proceeds  extremely 
slowly.  At  89°  to  90°  F.  fermentation  will  usually  be  com- 
plete in  two  weeks  or  less.  Because  a  warm  temperature 
is  so  favorable,  the  stoneware  crock  or  other  container 
should  be  kept  in  a  warm  room,  except  in  hot  summer 
weather. 

Vinegar  flies  often  gather  around  fermenting  fruits  or 
juices.  Their  presence  is  objectionable,  both  because  of 
their  appearance,  and  the  fact  that  they  may  infect 
the  material  with  vinegar  bacteria.  Vinegar  bacteria 
form  vinegar  acid  which  seriously  interferes  with 
and  may  stop  yeast  fermentation.  It  is  essential 
that  yeast  fermentation  run  to  completion  in  order 
that  a  strong  vinegar  shall  be  formed.  The  flies  may 
be  kept  out  of  barrels  or  jars  by  the  use  of  cheesecloth 
covers. 

85.  Pressing  Fermented  Fruits.  The  same  equipment 
can  be  used  as  described  under  paragraph  29,  "  The 
Pressing  of  Fruits  for  Fruit  Juice. "  If  only  a  small 
amount  (less  than  five  gallons)  of  crushed  fruit  has  been 


120     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

fermented,  it  may  be  pressed  through  a  cheesecloth. 
Usually  a  great  deal  of  the  juice  may  be  poured  off  after 
fermentation  is  complete;  this  is  especially  true  of  soft 
fruits. 

The  pressed  juice  should  be  placed  in  clean  containers. 
Alcoholic  fermentation  will  continue  for  several  days 
after  pressing. 

86.  Removal  of  Sediment.    When  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion is  over,  the  yeast  and  coarse  fruit,  pulp,  etc.,  will 
settle  out.    When  this  has  occurred  the  fermented  liquid 
should  be  drawn  or  poured  off  the  sediment,  because 
this  material  will  affect  the  flavor  of  the  vinegar.    Usually 
settling  will  have  taken  place  in  a  month  after  the  start 
of  alcoholic   fermentation  or  within  two  weeks   after 
alcoholic  fermentation  is  over.    A  hose  is  used  to  syphon 
off  settled  fermented  liquids  from  barrels;  the  liquid 
may  simply  be  poured  from  a  crock  or  jar  into  another 
similar  clean  container. 

87.  Adding   Vinegar    Starter.      When    the    alcoholic 
fermentation  is  complete  (but  not  before)  the  vinegar 
fermentation  should  be  started  by  the  addition  of  a 
small   amount   of   vinegar.      Never   add   vinegar   until 
yeast  fermentation  is  complete.    This  is  when  gas  is  no 
longer    given    off  and   there   is    no  longer   a  taste    of 
sugar.     This  may  be  done  by  adding  one  pint  of  barrel 
vinegar  or  new  vinegar  from  a  grocery  store  to  each 
gallon  of  fermented  liquid  after  drawing   it  off  from 
the  yeast   sediment.     To  fermented   orange  juice  add 
one  quart  of  vinegar  per  gallon.     If  there  is  any  vinegar 
on  hand  from    previous    home   made  lots,  it   may    be 
used.      The    addition    of    several    pieces    of    "  vinegar 
mother  "  also  greatly  assists  the  start  of  vinegar  fer- 
mentation. 

The  vinegar  adds  millions  of  vinegar  bacteria  which 
multiply  rapidly  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  and  it  also  in- 
creases the  vinegar  or  acetic'  acid  so  that  molding  and 


VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE 


121 


growth  of  "  wine  flowers  "  cannot  take  place.  Mold  and 
wine  flowers  often  spoil  alcoholic  liquids  to  be  used  for 
vinegar  unless  vinegar  is  added. 

88.  Vinegar  Fermentation.  Vinegar  fermentation 
must  not^  be  allowed  to  start  until  after  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation is  complete.  Starting  the  vinegar  fermenta- 
tion is  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

The  mixed  vinegar  and  alcoholic  liquid  must  be  so 
placed  that  a  large  surface  is  exposed  to  the  air.  If  the 


. 


FIG.  49.  Barrel  Arranged  for  Vinegar  Making,    a,  Holes  for  admis- 
sion of  air.     b,  Open  bung  hole,     c,  Spigot. 

liquid  is  in  a  bottle  the  bottle  should  be  filled  only  two- 
thirds  full  and  must  not  be  corked.  A  cloth  only  should 
be  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  to  keep  out  in- 
sects. A  stoneware  crock  or  glass  fruit  jar  can  be  used. 
It  should  be  covered  with  a  cloth  only.  If  a  barrel  is 
used,  leave  the  bung  open  and  fill  the  barrel  only  two- 
thirds  or  three-fourths  full.  The  arrangement  in  Fig.  49 
is  very  good. 

Vinegar  fermentation  proceeds  must  rapidly  in  a  warm 
room  at  75°  to  90° -F.    At  this  temperature,  vinegar  will 


122     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


usually  form  in  about  three  or  four  months.    It  will  then 
be  ready  for  filtration  and  use. 

During  the  vinegar  fermentation  the  liquid  should  be 

protected  from  vinegar 
diseases  and  pests  as 
described  i  n  para- 
graph 84. 

89.  Vinegar  Genera- 
tors. The  rate  of  vine- 
gar fermentation  de- 
pends on  the  amount 
of  surface  exposed  to 
the  air  and  to  the 
temperature.  Vinegar 
generators  enormously 
increase  the  surface 
and  hence  speed  up 
the  rate  of  fermenta- 
tion accordingly. 

The  most  common 
type  of  generator  is  a 
wooden  cylinder  8  to 
12  feet  high  and  about 
30  to  40  inches  wide. 
This  is   usually   filled 
FIG.  50.  Plan  for  Upright  Vinegar  Gen-  with  beechwood  shav- 
erator  for  Farm  Use.  A.  Delivery  pipe  ings.      Corn    cobs,    or 
for   fermented   juice.    B.  Cover.    C.  rattan    shavings    may 
Tilting    trough    to  distribute   liquid     i        u  j        /^u 

PI          i  i         -f^      T\       p  i     p    t          CtlSLf       DC       llotLl.  vyildl  — 

over  false  head.    D.  Perforated  false  ,       .      , 

head.  E.  Main  cylinder  of  generator  coal  or  coke  m  larSe 
filled  with  shavings.  F.  Thermome-  pieces  may  be  used  for 
ter.  G.  Wails  of  generator.  H.  Air  distilled  alcoholic  liq- 
inlets.  I.  Outlet  for  vinegar.  uids>  but  not  for  fmit 

juices  because  the  material  would  soon  become  clogged 
with  sediment. 

The  acidified  fermented  juice  is  run  through  the  above 


VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE  123 

generator  slowly  (not  more  than  twenty-five  gallons  per 
day).  It  is  distributed  over  the  perforated  head  of  the 
generator  by  a  tilting  trough  and  trickles  down  over 
the  shavings.  Air  is  admitted  through  air  holes  near 
the  bottom  of  the  generator.  Heat  is  generated  by  the 
fermentation  and  the  temperature  in  the  generator  is 
maintained  at  80°  to  85°  F.  by  regulating  the  rate  of  flow 
of  liquid  and  air  supply.  A  mixture  of  one  part  vinegar 
and  three  parts  fermented  liquid  enters  the  top  of  the 
generator  and  vinegar  issues  from  the  bottom.  The 
time  for  the  liquid  to  flow  through  the  generator  is 
only  a  few  minutes. 

Considerable  skill  and  experience  are  necessary  to 
successfully  operate  vinegar  generators  and  their  use  is 
recommended  only  for  relatively  large  installations. 

A  simple  generator  for  farm  use  can  be  constructed 
of  a  barrel  filled  with  beechwood  shavings  and  fitted 
with  two  wooden  spigots  and  hole  at  each  end.  To 
operate  this  generator,  it  is  filled  half  full  with  fermented 
juice  acidified  with  one  gallon  of  vinegar  to  each  three 
gallons  of  liquid.  The  upper  spigot  is  left  open.  The 
barrel  is  turned  halfway  over  several  times  daily,  closing 
the  lower  spigot  and  opening  the  upper  spigot  each 
time.  Air  enters  holes  in  centers  of  ends  of  the  barrel 
and  flows  out  the  upper  spigot  furnishing  air  to  the 
liquid  and  vinegar  bacteria  on  the  wet  shavings  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  barrel.  A  form  of  revolving  generator 
is  also  used  commercially. 

The  operation  and  construction  of  vinegar  generators 
is  very  well  described  in  a  circular  published  by  the 
Hydraulic  Press  Manufacturing  Company  of  Mt.  Gilead, 
Ohio.  This  company  will  send  the  above  circular  free 
on  request. 

Vinegar  fermentation  should  be  watched  carefully 
and  when  the  vinegar  is  strong  enough  for  use  it  should 
be  placed  in  completely  filled  containers  such  as  barrels 


124     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

or  bottles.  Where  very  large  amounts  of  vinegar  are 
made,  the  vinegar  should  be  analyzed  for  acid  content. 
The  instrument  shown  in  Fig.  51  is  used  by  vinegar 


FIG.  51.  Leo  Acid  Tester  for  Testing  Strength  of  Vinegar.  A.  Water 
reservoir  and  graduated  cylinder.  B.  Measuring  spoon  for 
baking  soda.  C.  Bottle  in  which  vinegar  and  soda  are  mixed. 
D.  Tube  for  measuring  vinegar. 

factories.     Directions  for  its  use  accompany  it.     It  can 
be  used  by  anyone. 

90.  Aging  of  Vinegar.    Vinegar  is  greatly  improved  in 
flavor  by  storing  for  one  year  in  well-filled  closed  wooden 


VINEGAR  MANUFACTURE  125 

barrels.  It  does  not  age  very  well  in  well-filled  bottles 
and  may  deteriorate  in  open  barrels  and  tanks  after 
reaching  its  maximum  strength.  The  bacteria  form 
acid  so  long  as  any  alcohol  is  left.  When  all  of  the  al- 
cohol is  changed  to  acid,  they  attack  the  acid  itself  if 
the  vinegar  is  exposed  to  air  and  may  completely  destroy 
all  the  acid  or  seriously  lower  the  quality  of  the  product. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  storing  it  in  well-filled  closed 
containers  when  the  maximum  acid  content  is  reached. 
This  point  is  determined  by  analysis  with  instruments 
shown  in  Fig.  51  if  a  large  quantity  of  vinegar  is  made. 
In  the  household  the  taste  will  serve  as  a  guide. 

91.  Clearing  the  Vinegar.    If  the  vinegar  is  for  home 
use  it  may  be  made  sufficiently  clear  by  straining  through 
heavy  cloth. 

If  it  is  to  be  sold,  it  may  be  necessary  to  clarify  it  by 
the  methods  outlined  in  Recipe  95.  However,  vinegar 
made  in  small  quantities  usually  becomes  clear  after 
settling  several  months  and  only  the  sediment  need 
be  filtered  or  strained. 

92.  Vinegar  Diseases  and  Pests. 

(a)  Wine  Flowers.     This  disease  is  caused  by  a  film 
yeast  growing  on  freshly  fermented  fruit  juices  and  is 
seen  as  a  white  powdery  or  wrinkled  and  easily  broken 
film.     It  is  easily  distinguished  from  vinegar  mother 
because  vinegar  mother  is  thick,  slimy,  almost  colorless, 
and  tough.     Wine  flowers  destroy  the  alcohol  of  the 
liquid  and  do  not  form  any  acid.     They  are  especially 
dangerous  in  fermented  orange  juice  or  other  fermented 
juices  of  low  alcohol  content.     If  vinegar  at  the  rate  of 
one  or  two  pints  to^  every  gallon  of  fermented  liquid  is 
added  when  yeast  fermentation  is  complete,  there  will  be 
little  danger  of  injury  by  wine  flowers.    Pure  yeast  added 
to  the  fresh  juice  before  fermentation,  also  reduces  the 
possibility  of  growth  of  wine  flowers. 

(b)  Lactic  Acid  Bacteria.     These  grow  in  fermented 


12G     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

liquids  producing  disagreeable  flavors  and  cloudiness. 
They  can  be  controlled  as  directed  for  wine  flowers. 

(c)  Vinegar  Eels.  These  are  small  nematode  worms 
just  large  enough  to  be  seen  in  the  vinegar  when  it  is 
held  to  the  light  in  a  small  glass  tube  or  small  tumbler. 
They  are  not  especially  harmful  to  health  but  their  ap- 
pearance is  not  pleasing.  They  may  infest  generators 
so  badly  that  the  generators  cannot  be  used  until  the 
eels  have  been  killed. 

They  may  be  killed  by  heating  the  vinegar  to  120°  F. 
in  an  agateware  pot  or  by  heating  in  some  other  way. 
Generators  infested  with  eels  are  sterilized  by  live  steam. 
Tanks  in  which  infested  vinegar  has  been  stored  should 
be  steamed  or  sulphur  should  be  burned  in  them  several 
times  so  that  the  fumes  will  kill  the  eels.  They  can  also 
be  removed  by  close  filtration.  Eels  will  seldom  appear 
in  very  small  lots  of  vinegar,  but  are  very  common  in 
vinegar  factories  where  they  usually  do  not  become 
numerous  enough  to  require  repressive  measures. 


.CHAPTER  XV 
FRUIT  WINES 

Fermented  beverages  from  various  fruits  can  be  made 
successfully  on  a  small  scale  on  the  farm  without  ex- 
pensive equipment.  Success  depends  upon  the  use  of 
clean,  sound  fruit  of  good  quality,  care  in  manipulation, 
and  the  possession  of  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
fermentation.  Control  of  fermentation  is  by  far  the 
most  important  factor  concerned. 

93.  Red  Wine.  Red  wine  is  made  by  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation of  crushed  red  wine  grapes.  The  color  of 
these  grapes  is  in  the  skins  and  does  not  dissolve  until 
fermentation  takes  place.  It  then  dissolves  in  the  fer- 
mented juice,  giving  the  characteristic  red  color. 

(a)  Crushing.    The  grapes  may  be  crushed  in  an  apple 
or  fruit  crusher  or  with  a  heavy  stick  or  with  the  hands. 
Use  only  clean  ripe  grapes;  never  moldy  ones.    It  is  not 
practicable   to   make   less   than   five   gallons   of   wine. 
Wooden  containers  are  necessary  for  good  results. 

(b)  Yeast.     Compressed  yeast  or  magic  yeast  can- 
not be  used  for  wine.    The  grapes  will  ferment  of  their 
own  accord,  but  may  not  give  a  good  product.    If  only 
a  few  gallons  of  wine  are  to  be  made,  the  grapes  may 
be  allowed  to  ferment  with  the  yeast  naturally  occurring 
on  them.     Better  results  will  be  obtained  if  yeast  ob- 
tained from  the  Viticulture  Division  of  the  University 
of  California,  Berkeley,  is  used.    This  may  be  obtained 
for  one  dollar  per  culture.    Directions  for  its  use  accom- 
pany the  culture. 

(c)  First    Fermentation.      The    crushed    grapes    are 
placed  in  an  open  wooden  vat  or  open  barrel  or  in  a  stone- 

127 


128     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

ware  crock.  The  yeast  from  the  University  is  added  or 
the  grapes  are  allowed  to  ferment  spontaneously.  They 
should  be  stirred  well  three  times  daily.  Fermentation  is 
allowed  to  proceed  until  almost  all  of  the  sugar  is  fer- 
mented. This  will  be  in  five  to  eight  days  at  room  tem- 
perature. By  this  time  the  wine  should  have  become 
deep  red  in  color. 

(d)  Pressing.    The  juice  is  pressed  from  the  fermented 
grapes.    A  cider  press  or  kitchen  size  fruit  press  may  be 
used  for  small  quantities.    A  jelly  bag  may  also  be  used. 

(e)  Final  Fermentation.     The  wine  is  transferred  to 
barrels  or  casks.    These  are  left  open  until  the  sugar  is  all 
fermented.     This  will  take  place  in  about  two  to  three 
weeks.    During  this  time  the  barrels  should  lie  on  their 
sides  with  bung  holes  up  and  open  and  they  should  be 
kept  full. 

(f)  Settling    and    Filling    Up.      When    fermentation 
ceases  and  the  sugar  is  all  fermented,  the  barrels  are 
filled  with  other  sound  new  or  old  wine  and  closed  with 
bungs.     They  should  be  examined  once  daily  for  about 
two  weeks,  removing  the  bung  or  cork  to  release  pressure 
of  gas  and  then  replacing  it.    This  will  prevent  bursting 
of  the  barrels.    As  the  wine  cools  it  contracts  in  volume 
and  more  wine  must  be  added  occasionally  to  keep  the 
containers  full  in  order  to  prevent  vinegar  formation. 
Souring  of  wine  is  often  caused  by  not  keeping  the  bar- 
rels full. 

(g)  Racking.    When  the  wine  has  settled  for  about  a 
month,  it  is  drawn  off  ("  racked  ")  into  clean  barrels, 
casks,  or  demijohns,  and  these  are  filled  completely  and 
closed. 

(h)  Aging.  Newly  made  wine  is  not  pleasing  in  flavor. 
It  must  be  allowed  to  age  in  barrels  or  other  closed  and 
well  filled  wooden  containers  for  at  least  a  year  before  it 
should  be  used.  The  containers  must  be  kept  full  and 
closed  during  this  time.  Wine  improves  with  age  up  to  a 


FRUIT  WINES  129 

certain  point.  Claret  is  usually  best  when  three  or  four 
years  old. 

During  aging,  the  flavor  and  bouquet  of  the  wine 
develop  by  a  slow  oxidation  process,  brought  about  by 
the  air  which  slowly  gains  entrance  through  the  pores  of 
the  wood. 

(i)  Clearing  the  Wine.  If  properly  made,  wine  will 
usually  become  clear  of  its  own  accord.  If  it  should  not 
do  so,  it  may  be  clarified  by  filtration. 

(j)  Bottling.  When  the  wine  has  acquired  its  best 
flavor  (after  two  to  four  years  for  red  wine),  it  should  be 
bottled  to  prevent  deterioration.  The  bottles  should  be 
well  filled  and  corked  with  good  quality  wine  corks  so 
that  the  bottles  will  not  leak.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to 
seal  the  corks  with  paraffin  to  prevent  molding. 

94.  White  Wine.    White  wine  may  be  made  in  a  small 
way  on  the  farm  in  barrels  or  puncheons  (180  gallon 
barrels),  or  in  small  casks.    Demijohns  or  bottles  may  be 
used,  but  the  results  so  obtained  are  not  very  satisfac- 
tory.   A  barrel  or  cask  should  be  employed.    White  wine 
grapes  of  good  quality  only  should  be  used. 

(a)  Crushing,  Pressing  and  Settling.     White  grapes 
are  crushed  and  pressed  before  fermentation.    The  juice 
is  not  allowed  to  ferment  with  the  skins,  in  this  way 
differing  from  red  wine. 

(b)  Fermentation  is  carried  out  in  barrels  or  pun- 
cheons, etc.,  with  the  bungs  left  open.    Open  vats  are  not 
used.    The  same  care  in  fermentation  should  be  given  as 
for  red  wine  (see  paragraph  93).    Fermentation  should 
be  complete  in  four  or  five  weeks. 

(c)  Racking,  Filling  Up,  Aging,  Clearing,  etc.,  are  car- 
ried out  as  for  red  wine. 

95.  Other  Fermented  Fruit  Juices.     Hard  cider  and 
other  fermented  fruit  juices  are  often  made  for  home  use. 
These  may  be  used  while  still  in  fermentation,  as  "  sharp" 
cider,  etc.,  or  may  be  allowed  to  ferment  "  dry,"  i.  e., 


130     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

until  no  sugar  is  left  and  may  then  be  allowed  to  age  in 
wood  before  use.  Or  they  may  be  bottled  just  before 
fermentation  is  over  to  produce  sparkling  drinks. 

The  juice  is  pressed  from  ripe  fruit  and  allowed  to 
ferment  spontaneously  or  fermentation  is  induced  by  the 
addition  of  pure  yeast  from  such  a  source  as  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  or  some  other  reliable  source.  Com- 
pressed yeast  can  be  used  but  may  not  give  an  agreeable 
flavor. 

If  the  fermented  juices  are  to  be  aged  this  must  be 
done  in  wooden  barrels  or  casks  for  the  best  results. 
Because  of  their  low  alcohol  content,  vinegar  fermenta- 
tion must  be  carefully  avoided  by  keeping  the  barrels 
full;  well  closed,  and  in  a  cool  place.  These  juices  age 
very  quickly  and  may  be  used  in  a  few  months  after 
fermentation. 

Pomegranates,  pears,  oranges,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, sweet  plums,  cherries,  and  peaches  may  all  be 
used  for  hard  cider.  Peaches  and  pears  may  be  pressed 
more  satisfactorily  if  crushed  and  fermented  before 
pressing. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PRESERVATION  OF  VEGETABLES   AND   FRUITS 
BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING 

A  great  variety  of  pickles  may  be  made  from  vegetables 
and  to  a  less  degree  from  fruits.  These  include  such 
things  as  cucumber  pickles,  dill  pickles,  sauerkraut,  ripe 
olives,  and  sweet  fruit  and  vegetable  pickles. 

The  preservation  of  vegetables  by  salting  and  fer- 
mentation involves  principles  similar  to  those  of  pickling, 
and,  therefore,  this  method  of  preservation  is  considered 
with  pickling. 

96.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Salt.  Many  veg- 
etables may  be  preserved  in  salt  or  strong  brine  without 
causing  any  marked  changes  in  flavor  or  composition  of 
the  vegetables.  The  salt  acts  as  an  antiseptic  and  pre- 
vents spoiling.  There  are  three  ways  in  which  the  salt  is 
used.  The  vegetables  may  be  mixed  with  dry  salt  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  completely  prevent  the  growth  of 
all  microorganisms,  or  only  a  small  amount  of  dry  salt 
is  added  and  fermentation  is  allowed  to  take  place,  the 
products  of  fermentation,  together  with  the  salt,  pre- 
serving the  vegetables;  or  a  very  strong  brine  may  be 
made  up  and  the  vegetables  stored  in  this  without 
fermentation. 

(a)  Dry  Salting.  In  this  method  the  vegetables  are 
prepared  fresh  as  for  cooking  for  the  table.  Carrots, 
beets,  and  turnips  are  peeled  and  sliced ;  string  beans  are 
broken  into  short  pieces  and  corn  is  cut  from  the  cob. 
Onions  and  peas  do  not  respond  well  to  salting.  Corn 
and  string  beans  are  excellent  when  salted. 

One  pound  of  salt  is  weighed  out  and  mixed  with  each 

131 


132     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

three  to  four  pounds  of  vegetables  in  a  stoneware  jar  or 
in  an  open  barrel.  The  salt  and  vegetables  are  built  up  in 
alternate  layers  and  a  wooden  cover  to  fit  inside  the  con- 
tainer and  heavily  weighted,  is  placed  on  the  vegetables. 
The  salt  and  pressure  draw  the  juice  from  the  vegetables. 
This  forms  a  concentrated  brine  in  which  the  vegetables 
will  keep  indefinitely.  They  should  be  sealed  with 
paraffin  after  about  two  weeks  to  check  evaporation  of 
the  liquid.  The  vegetables  must  be  freshened  in  water  by 
soaking  in  cold  water  or  by  parboiling  before  use  for 
cooking.  They  will  keep  indefinitely  in  this  way. 

(b)  Salt  and  Fermentation.  In  this  method  a  small 
amount  of  salt  (one-half  pound  to  each  ten  pounds  of  veg- 
etables) is  used.  This  permits  the  growth  of  yeasts  and 
lactic  acid  bacteria,  but  prevents  the  growth  of  putrefac- 
tive bacteria.  It  does  not  prevent  the  growth  of  mold; 
molding  must  be  checked  by  exclusion  of  air.  The  lactic 
acid  formed  in  the  fermentation  is  the  main  factor  in 
the  preservation  of  the  vegetables.  Cabbage,  string 
beans,  sliced  beets,  greens,  sliced  root  vegetables,  all 
lend  themselves  very  well  to  this  process.  In  Belgium 
and  Holland,  it  is  said  that  this  is  the  most  common  way 
of  preserving  all  kinds  of  vegetables. 

Vegetables  preserved  by  this  method  possess  a  "  sauer- 
kraut "  flavor  which  varies  with  the  kind  of  vegetable 
preserved. 

The  jar  or  barrel  must  be  kept  sealed  after  fermenta- 
tion is  over.  Jars  are  sealed  by  pouring  a  thick  layer  of 
paraffin  over  the  fermented  vegetables.  This  is  added 
ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  mixing  the  salt  and  veg- 
etables. When  vegetables  are  taken  out  for  use  the 
paraffin  coating  must  be  replaced  in  order  that  molding 
will  not  take  place. 

Barrels  may  be  fitted  with  a  six-inch  bung  in  one  head. 
The  vegetables  and  salt  are  packed  in  with  the  head  re- 
moved and  is  so  left  until  fermentation  is  over.  The  bar- 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING     133 


rel  is  then  headed  up  and  brine  of  the  same  strength  as 
that  on  the  vegetables  (one  pound  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water)  is  added  to  fill  the  barrel  completely  and  the 
barrel  is  sealed  with  the 
bung.  As  the  vegeta- 
bles are  taken  out  they 
are  replaced  with  brine. 
(c)  Strong  Brine.  A 
few  vegetables  cannot 
be  preserved  satisfac- 
torily by  methods  "  a  " 
and  "b."  Some  of 
these  may  be  stored  in 
a  very  strong  brine 
made  of  three  and  one- 
half  to  four  pounds  of 
salt  per  gallon  of  water. 
No  fermentation  can 
take  place  in  this  high 
concentration  of  salt. 
Large  peppers,  cauli- 
flower, artichokes,  and  ^ 

FIG.  52.  Barrel    or   Other    Container 

asparagus,  are  exam-  Arranged  for  Fermentation  of  Vege- 
ples  of  vegetables  that  tables.  A.  False  wooden  head, 
can  be  successfully  pre-  B.  Heavy  weights.  C.  Prepared 
served  in  this  wav  vegetables,  salt  and  brine.  When 

The  vegetables '  will  [eC.entati°n  is  °Ver>  "**  With  P&r" 
float  because  of  the 

buoyant  action  of  the  brine.  Wooden  floats  must  be 
used  to  keep  the  vegetables  submerged  to  prevent 
molding. 

The  vegetables  must  be  freshened  before  use.  A 
convenient  way  of  doing  this  is  to  suspend  them  in  a 
coarse  bag  or  colander  in  the  top  of  a  large  pot  of  water. 
The  salt  rapidly  dissolves  out  and  is  carried  away  by  the 
large  volume  of  water  beneath  the  vegetables.  This 


134     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

method  is  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  placing  the 
vegetables  in  the  bottom  of  a  pot  of  water. 

See  Recipes  99,  100,  and  101,  Part  III. 

97.  Dill  Pickles.  Dill  pickles  are  made  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  cucumbers  in  a  brine  in  the  presence  of 
dill  weed  and  spices  and  with  the  exclusion  of  air.  Lactic 


FIG.  53.  Preserving  Vegetables  by  Salting.  On  right,  jar  with 
vegetables  mixed  with  salt  and  weighted  down  with  heavy 
rock;  on  left,  sealing  jar  of  salted  vegetables  with  paraffin  after 
fermentation. 

acid  is  formed  and  gives  the  characteristic  sauer-kraut 
flavor  to  this  style  of  pickle.  The  brine  used  is  about  one- 
half  pound  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water.  A  small  amount  of 
vinegar  added  to  the  brine  will  prevent  softening  by 
injurious  bacterial  growth.  The  amount  of  vinegar 
needed  is  three-quarters  of  a  quart  per  ten  quarts  of 
brine. 

Dill  pickles  may  be  made  in  stoneware  crocks,  but 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING     135 

better  results  are  obtained  in  barrels.  Exclusion  of  air 
is  essential. 

Fermentation  requires  from  five  days  to  a  month, 
depending  on  the  temperature.  The  finished  pickles 
should  be  canned  and  sterilized  to  prevent  deterioration. 
(See  Recipe  104  for  specific  directions.) 

98.  Pickling  Vegetables  in  Vinegar.  Cucumbers,  green 
tomatoes,  onions,  small  peppers,  beets,  and  cauliflower 
are  the  vegetables  most  commonly  preserved  in  vinegar. 
The  processes  of  pickling  consist  of  a  preliminary  treat- 
ment to  prepare  them  for  the  vinegar  and  secondly,  of 
the  storage  in  plain  or  sweetened  vinegar.  The  vinegar 
is  the  preserving  agent,  sterilization  being  unnecessary. 

(a)  Storage  in  Brine.  Most  vegetables  for  pickling 
should  be  stored  in  brine  a  few  weeks  to  remove  dis- 
agreeable flavors  before  placing  them  in  vinegar.  Cu- 
cumbers are  stored  for  about  two  weeks  in  a  brine  con- 
sisting of  one  and  three-fourths  pounds  of  salt  to  the 
gallon  of  water;  this  is  then  increased  to  two  and  one- 
half  pounds  per  gallon  and  the  cucumbers  held  in  this 
until  needed  for  final  pickling  in  vinegar.  Fermentation 
takes  place  during  storage,  the  green  color  fades  to  an 
olive  green,  the  acrid  flavor  disappears,  lactic  acid  is 
formed  from  the  sugar,  and  the  texture  and  flavor  im- 
proved. The  cucumbers  must  be  kept  submerged  in 
the  brine.  This  can  be  done  with  a  wooden  float.  Should 
softening  set  in  more  salt  must  be  added.  Softening  is 
the  result  of  harmful  bacterial  or  mold  growth.  This  is 
checked  by  increasing  the  salt  content.  Onions,  cauli- 
flower, and  green  tomatoes  are  stored  in  a  brine  of  three 
and  one-half  pounds  of  salt  per  gallon  for  two  weeks  or 
longer  before  pickling.  Peppers  are  stored  in  wooden 
barrels,  filled  with  a  brine  of  the  same  strength  as  di- 
rected for  use  on  cucumbers.  After  fermentation,  the 
barrel  is  closed  and  stored  until  peppers  are  used  in 
vinegar.  Beets  are  not  stored  in  salt. 


136     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(b)  Removal  of  Salt.    The  salt  must  be  removed  from 
the  vegetables  by  soaking  in  cold  water,  or  by  heating 
in  several  changes  of  water  to  about  120°  to  150°  F.    A 
teaspoonful  of  alum  per  gallon  of  hot  water  used  will 
make  cucumbers  more  crisp.     Several  hours'   heating 
are  usually  necessary  to  remove  the  salt. 

(c)  Addition  of  Vinegar.     Good  cider  vinegar  should 
be  used.     If  the  salt  has  been  removed  from  the  vege- 
tables by  soaking  in  cold  water  the  vinegar  is  added  to 
the  pickles  boiling  hot;  if  it  has  been  removed  by  heating 
in  water  to  120°  to  150°  F.,  the  vinegar  is  added  cold. 
The  vinegar  may  be  spiced  or  sweetened  by  methods 
given  in  Recipe  107.     The  pickles  will  be  ready  for  use 
after  two  or  three  weeks'  storage  in  vinegar. 

99.  Pickling   Fruits    in   Vinegar.      Fruits,    especially 
figs  and  peaches,  are  often  made  into  sweet  pickles  by  the 
addition  of  a  spiced  and  sweetened  vinegar  to  the  cooked 
fruit  or  by  cooking  the  fruit  in  this  sweetened  liquor. 
(See  Recipe  108.) 

100.  Olives.    The  olive  pickling  industry  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  California's  fruit  industries.    Arizona 
is  the  only  other  state  growing  olives  commercially. 

Olives  are  pickled  both  green  and  ripe,  although  green 
pickled  olives  are  no  longer  produced  commercially  in 
the  United  States. 

Olives  before  pickling  are  extremely  bitter  in  flavor. 
The  pickling  process  is  largely  one  of  removing  this  bit- 
terness. 

(a)  Pickled  Ripe  Olives.  The  olives  should  be  of 
good  pickling  varieties  such  as  Mission,  Manzanillo, 
Sevillano,  or  Ascolano,  and  should  be  ripe.  They  are 
ripe  when  cherry  red  to  black  in  color.  They  should  not 
be  overripe  and  soft  or  badly  injured  by  frost. 

Wooden  or  stoneware  vessels  must  be  used  for  olive 
pickling.  Never  use  metal. 

The  first  step  in  the  treatment  is  the  addition  of  a 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING    137 

lye  solution  of  approximately  three  ounces  (three  table- 
spoonfuls)  of  soda  lye  to  the  gallon  of  water.  This 
solution  is  allowed  to  penetrate  through  the  skins  of  the 
olives  and  a  little  way  into  the  flesh.  The  action  of  the 
lye  is  evidenced  by  a  change  in  color  of  the  skins  of 
the  olives  and  is  also  shown  by  darkening  of  the  flesh  of 


FIG.  54.  Vats  of  Olives  being  Exposed  to  Air  to  Color  Them  during 
Pickling  Process. 

the  fruit.  If  an  olive  is  cut  occasionally  during  the  lye 
treatment,  the  action  of  the  lye  will  be  seen  on  the  cut  sur- 
face. The  first  lye  is  used  to  act  upon  the  color  in  the 
skins  so  that  it  will  turn  dark  on  exposing  the  olives  to 
the  air.  If  it  goes  too  deeply  into  the  flesh  the  coloring 
during  air  exposure  will  not  be  satisfactory.  It  will 
usually  take  from  three  to  eight  hours  for  the  lye  to 
penetrate  sufficiently.  The  lye  is  then  removed  and 
placed  in  another  vessel.  The  olives  are  left  exposed  to 
the  air  in  the  vessel  in  which  lye  treatment  took  place. 


138     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

They  are  stirred  three  or  four  times  daily.  Two  to  four 
days'  exposure  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  darken  the 
olives.  Exposure  is  necessary  because  the  lye  treat- 
ment bleaches  the  natural  color  of  the  olive  more  or 
less.  Exposure  to  air  injures  the  flavor  and  texture 


FIG.  55.  Interior  of  Large  Olive  Pickling  Plant. 

slightly  and  if  a  dark  color  is  not  desired  the  exposure 
part  of  the  process  may  be  omitted. 

When  the  olives  have  acquired  the  desired  color  the 
lye  is  returned  to  them  to  remove  the  bitter  principle. 
The  lye  must  be  left  on  the  olives  the  second  time  until 
it  reaches  the  olive  pits.  This  will  be  in  about  twenty- 
four  hours.  It  dissolves  and  destroys  the  bitter  com- 
pounds. 

The  lye  is  then  removed  and  discarded,  The  olives  are 
then  covered  with  water  which  is  changed  twice  daily 
until  no  taste  of  lye  is  perceptible.  This  will  require 
about  a  week's  time. 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING    139 

The  olives  are  then  sterilized  in  jars  or  cans  in  a  brine 
of  five  ounces  (five  tablespoonfuls)  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water.  They  must  be  sterilized  in  boiling  water  one 
hour.  Any  of  the  sterilizers  described  under  canning 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  used. 

(b)  Green  Olives.    Olives  for  green  olive  pickles  should 
be  of  full  size,  but  still  green  in  color.    They  are  placed 
in  a  lye  solution  of  three  ounces  per  gallon  and  left  until 
the  lye  reaches  the  pits.     This  destroys  the  bitterness. 
The  lye  is  washed  out  with  repeated  changes  of  water. 
This  must  be  done  without  exposing  the  olives  to  the 
air  in  order  that  darkening  of  the  olives  shall  not  take 
place.     Green  olive   pickles  should   be  light  yellowish 
green  when  pickled  and  should  not  be  brown  in  color. 
The  olives  are  then  placed  in  barrels  or  jars  and  covered 
with  a  brine  of  nine  ounces  (nine  tablespoonfuls)  of  salt 
per  gallon.     The  barrels  or  jars  should  be  completely 
filled  with  brine  and  sealed  with  a  bung  or  well  fitting 
top.    Fruit  jars  may  be  used  for  small  quantities.    Air 
must  be  excluded  in  order  that  lactic  acid  fermentation 
but  not  molding  may  take  place.    The  reason  for  placing 
the  olives  in  the  brine  is  to  permit  lactic  acid  fermenta- 
tion to  take  place.     This  produces  the  characteristic 
green  olive  flavor  and  texture.    If  the  brine  is  too  weak 
they  will  soften.    If  it  is  too  concentrated  they  will  not 
undergo  fermentation.    Barrels  are  the  most  satisfactory 
containers.    They  should  be  full  and  closed. 

The  barrels  or  jars  are  left  in  a  warm  place  until 
the  olives  have  reached  the  desired  flavor.  They  are 
then  removed,  placed  in  olive  or  fruit  jars,  the  brine  is 
filtered,  and  poured  on  the  olives  boiling  hot  and  the 
jars  are  sealed.  No  further  sterilization  is  necessary. 

(c)  "  Greek  "  Olives.     Olives  may  be  cured  without 
the  lye  treatment  by  mixing  one  pound  of  salt  to  each  three 

"pounds  of  olives  used.    The  salt  and  olives  are  built  up 
in  alternate  layers  in  a  crock  or  tank  or  barrel  and  left 


140     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

until  the  proper  flavor  has  developed.  The  olives  are 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  salt.  The  salt  destroys  the 
bitterness  and  draws  out  some  of  the  moisture  from  the 
olives  to  such  an  extent  that  when  they  are  removed  from 
the  salt  no  sterilization  is  necessary  to  keep  them.  The 
salt  is  brushed  off  the  olives  after  the  bitterness  has 
disappeared.  This  will  be  in  four  to  six  weeks.  They 
are  stored  in  jars  or  boxes.  This  style  of  olive  is  used 
very  extensively  by  the  Italian  and  Greek  population  in 
America.  Such  olives  contain  most  of  the  food  value  of 
the  olive  and  possess  more  of  the  fresh  olive  flavor  than 
do  olives  pickled  in  the  usual  way. 

101.  Tomato  Ketchup.  This  product  is  made  in 
enormous  quantities  and  is  used  on  practically  every 
table.  Most  of  it  is  made  in  factories,  especially  equipped 
for  this  purpose.  It  can,  however,  be  made  on  a  small 
scale. 

The  material  used  should  be  of  best  quality  and  free 
from  moldy  or  soured  tomatojes.  Firm  varieties,  such 
as  the  Stone  are  preferable  to  the  watery,  less  pulpy 
varieties  because  the  pulp  will  require  less  boiling  down 
and  will  be  of  better  color.  The  various  steps  in  tomato 
ketchup  manufacture  are  (a)  preparation  of  the  pulp, 
(b)  seasoning  the  pulp,  (c)  concentrating,  and  (d)  steril- 
izing. 

(a)  Pulping.     The  tomatoes  in  commercial  factories 
are  broken  up  finely  in  a  "  cyclone  "  machine  and  the 
pulp  forced  through  fine  openings  which  hold  the  skins 
and  seeds.     In  the  kitchen,  pulping  is  accompanied  by 
boiling  the  crushed  tomatoes  a  short  time  followed  by 
forcing  the  juice  and  pulp  through  a  fine  screen  to  remove 
skins  and  seeds.     These  must  be  removed  if  an  attrac- 
tive product  is  to  be  made. 

(b)  Addition  of  Flavoring  Materials.    Sugar,  vinegar, 
pepper,    salt,    onions    (usually),    cayenne    pepper,    and 
various  other  spices  are  added  to  the  pulp.    Paprika  is 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALTING  AND  PICKLING    141 

often  added  in  large  quantities  to  impart  a  deep  red 
color.  The  onions  are  added  before  cooking.  The 
other  spices  are  usually  added  after  the  ketchup  has 
been  partly  boiled  down  so  that  the  flavor  will  not  be 
lost  by  boiling. 

There  are  several  ways  of  adding  the  spices.  One  of 
the  best  methods  is  to  suspend  the  whole  or  coarsely 
ground  spices  in  a  bag  in  the  ketchup  during  boiling. 
The  flavor  is  extracted  from  the  spices  in  this  way.  If 
ground  spices  are  added  directly  to  the  pulp  there  is 
danger  of  darkening  the  product  too  much;  for  home 
ketchup  making  this,  however,  is  not  a  serious  defect 
and  is  more  economical  of  spices.  Acetic  acid  or  oil 
solutions  of  spices  are  also  used. 

(c)  Boiling.     The  pulp  is  boiled  down  to  about  two- 
thirds  or  one-half  the  original  volume.     Half  of  this 
boiling  is  carried  out  before  the  spices  are  added.    Boil- 
ing should  be  rapid  and  burning  avoided  by  stirring. 
Long  boiling  gives  a  dark  color.    There  is  no  simple  way 
of   determining  when  the  ketchup  is  done,  except  by 
taste  and  appearance.    When  it  has  reached  the  desired 
consistency  it  is  ready  for  bottling. 

(d)  Sterilizing.      The    hot    ketchup    is    poured    into 
scalded  bottles  or  jars.     Bottles  are  sealed  with  scalded 
corks.     Bottles   should   be   sterilized   in   boiling   water 
forty-five  to  sixty  minutes  to  kill  mold  spores.     Jars 
may  be  sterilized  one  hour  in  a  washboiler  sterilizer  as 
previously  directed  for  fruits.     Ketchup  may  also  be 
put  up  in  cans. 

102.  Miscellaneous  Tomato  Products. 

(a)  Tomato  Paste.  Tomato  paste  is  tomato  pulp 
flavored  or  unflavored,  as  desired,  which  has  been  con- 
centrated to  about  one-tenth  to  one-twelfth  the  original 
weight  of  pulp  taken.  It  is  used  as  a  flavoring  and  as  a 
base  for  soups,  in  combination  with  rice,  spaghetti,  etc. 
It  need  not  be  sterilized  and  can  be  stored  in  jelly  glasses, 


142     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

jars,  etc.,  sealed  with  paraffin.  In  making  the  paste  the 
skins  and  seeds  are  removed  from  the  tomato  pulp  by 
screening.  The  pulp  is  then  boiled  down  slowly  and 
finally  concentrated  to  a  thick  paste  on  the  back  of  the 
stove  or  in  the  sun  in  shallow  pans.  It  is  used  exten- 
sively by  the  Italian  population  under  the  name  of 
"  conserve." 

(b)  Puree.     Tomato  puree  is  fresh  pulp  freed  from 
skins  and  seeds.    It  is  sterilized  in  cans,  bottles,  or  jars. 
It  is  usually  not  concentrated  before  sterilizing,  although 
container  space  is  saved  by  boiling  the  puree  down  be- 
fore canning. 

(c)  Chili  Sauce,  Piccalilli,  and  Relishes.     These  are 
various  forms  of  chopped  tomato  relishes,  flavored  in 
various  ways  and  consisting  of  various  combinations  of 
other  vegetables  with   tomatoes.     Some   of  these   are 
made  from  green  and  others  from  ripe  tomatoes.     Re- 
cipes for  the  above  products  will  be  found  under  Part  III. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

It  is  often  desirable  to  preserve  surplus  meat  in  some 
attractive  and  palatable  form  in  the  household  or  on 
the  farm.  Occasions  will  often  arise  where  there  will 
be  pork  or  beef  to  salt  or  smoke;  fish  to  salt,  smoke,  or 
can;  and  chicken  or  rabbit  to  can.  The  following  dis- 
cussions on  meat  preservation  and  the  recipes  given  in 
Part  III  of  this  book  are  intended  to  give  the  principles 
of  meat  preservation  and  specific  directions  for  carrying 
out  the  actual  processes.  The  preservation  of  eggs  is 
also  included  with  the  discussion  of  meats. 

103.  Salting  Meats.  The  custom  of  farmers  salting 
down  the  winter's  supply  of  meat,  once  so  prevalent,  is 
now  much  less  popular  than  in  former  times.  It  is  still, 
however,  of  great  economical  importance.  The  great 
packing  houses  now  supply  cured  meats  to  the  farmers 
who  raise  the  pork  and  beef  from  which  the  bacon,  etc., 
is  made.  Preserving  meats  by  salting  is  not  a  difficult 
process  and  can  be  carried  out  on  the  farm  with  ordinary 
equipment  at  hand. 

(a)  Dry  Salting.  This  method  is  used  more  commonly 
for  fish  than  for  other  meats,  although  it  is  used  quite 
frequently  for  pork  also.  The  meat  must  be  fresh  but 
should  not  be  salted  until  the  animal  heat  has  disap- 
peared. Frozen  meats  do  not  take  up  the  salt  satisfac- 
torily. Stoneware  crocks  or  good  clean  barrels  are  used 
to  hold  the  salted  meat.  Pork  and  beef  are  cut  in  me- 
dium size  pieces;  fish  are  cut  in  half  and  heads,  fins,  and 
backbone  are  removed  unless  the  fish  are  very  small. 
For  each  100  pounds  of  meat,  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of 

143 


144     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

salt  is  weighed  out.  Salt  is  thoroughly  rubbed  into  each 
piece  of  meat  and  the  salted  meat  is  packed  in  alternate 
layers  with  the  salt  in  a  clean  barrel  or  crock,  the  last 
layer  of  meat  being  thoroughly  covered  with  salt.  A 
heavy  weight  is  placed  on  the  meat.  Pork  and  beef 
should  be  removed  three  or  four  times  during  the  first 
two  weeks  and  rubbed  thoroughly  with  salt.  Dry  salt- 
ing is  used  more  often  as  a  preliminary  treatment  to 
smoking  than  as  a  means  of  permanent  preservation. 

A  small  amount  of  saltpeter  and  pepper  is  often  added 
to  hold  the  color  of  the  meat  and  to  add  flavor. 

Fish  are  left  in  the  salt  without  removing  to  rub  with 
more  salt.  Fish  improve  with  age  up  to  a  year.  A  rather 
coarse  salt  should  be  used. 

Dry  salting  of  meat  tends  to  dry  the  meat  considerably 
by  drawing  out  the  moisture  to  form  a  brine.  Its  use, 
except  for  fish,  requires  considerable  experience  and  skill 
to  attain  uniformly  satisfactory  results.  The  preservation 
in  brine  requires  less  experience  and  is  recommended  in 
preference  to  the  dry-salting  method. 

(b)  Preserving  Meats  in  Brine.  A  strong  brine  makes 
a  convenient  preservative  solution  for  meats.  This 
brine  may  be  made  of  salt  and  water  alone,  but  it  often 
contains  other  ingredients  such  as  spices,  sugar,  and 
saltpeter.  The  saltpeter  is  used  to  preserve  the  bright  red 
color  to  meat. 

The  brine  used  must  be  a  practically  saturated  solu- 
tion of  salt  to  prevent  putrefaction.  This  is  especially 
true  of  fish.  Barrels,  crocks,  etc.,  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  scalded  before  use.  Brines  should  be  heated 
to  sterilize  them  and  allowed  to  cool  before  they  are 
used. 

Pork  and  beef  are  rubbed  with  ten  pounds  of  salt  per 
100  pounds  of  meat  and  the  dry  salt  and  meat  are  allowed 
to  stand  overnight  before  the  brine  is  added.  A  brine 
is  then  added.  A  typical  brine  consists  of  ten  pounds 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT  145 

of  salt  and  two  ounces  of  saltpeter  per  four  gallons  of 
water.  This  is  about  enough  brine  for  100  pounds  of 
meat.  The  meat  is  kept  submerged  by  wooden  floats 
until  used. 

The  meat  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place.  If  the 
brine  should  at  any  time  become  slimy  or  should  the 
odor  become  objectionable  it  should  be  changed  and 
fresh  brine  added.  Beef  and  pork  will  keep  indefinitely 
in  this  way,  although  in  time  the  flavor  and  quality 
deteriorate. 

Fish  are  put  down  in  a  brine  of  about  three  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water  and  stored  until 
used.  Corn  beef  brine  contains  saltpeter,  sugar,  and 
baking  soda. 

104.  Drying  Meats.     Meats  may  be  dried  with  or 
without  previous  salting,  provided  a  dry  hot  climate  is 
available.     Venison  is  often  sun  dried  after  sprinkling 
strips  of  the  meat  with  pepper  to  keep  away  insects. 
The  venison  is  cut  in  strips  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  thick  and  hung  on  a  line  to  dry.    Salt  may  be  used 
before  drying,  but  makes  the  product  tough  and  un- 
palatable.   The  dried  venison  is  known  as  "  jerkey." 

Beef  may  be  dried  in  the  same  way  as  venison. 

Fish  is  often  dried.  It  is  first  stored  about  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  hours  in  a  strong  brine  of  three  pounds  of 
salt  per  gallon  of  water.  It  is  then  dried. 

Meats  that  have  been  salted  may  be  dried  even  in  a 
coast  climate.  Fish  are  dried  in  great  quantities  along 
the  seashores  of  all  maritime  countries.  Without  fairly 
heavy  salting  to  prevent  the  growth  of  putrefactive  bac- 
teria this  would  not  be  possible. 

105.  Preservation   of   Meats   by   Smoking.      Smoke 
contains  certain  compounds  of  a  creosote  nature  that 
act  as  powerful  preservatives.    It  also  imparts  an  agree- 
able flavor  to  meats. 

(a)  Salting.    Meats  are  usually  stored  in  salt  or  brine 


146     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

a  short  time  before  smoking.  This  assists  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  meat,  adds  to  the  flavor,  and  reduces  the  moisture 
content  of  the  meat  slightly.  Smoking  further  reduces 
the  content  of  water. 

The  strength  of  the  brines  used  with  different  meats, 
the  ingredients  besides  salt,  and  the  length  of  storage 


FIG.  56.  Home-Made  Smoke  House. 

vary.  Fish  are  stored  for  only  about  sixteen  hours  in  a 
strong  brine.  Pork  is  stored  about  three  weeks  before 
smoking.  The  brines  used  for  various  meats  are  given 
under  meat  preservation  recipes  of  Part  III. 

(b)  The  Smoke  House.  The  meat  is  usually  rinsed 
in  warm  water  after  removal  from  the  brine  or  salt  and 
is  allowed  to  drain  before  hanging  in  the  smoke  house. 

The  smoke  house  may  be  merely  a  large  box  made 
almost  air-tight;  a  large  barrel  or  dry  goods  box  will 
answer  for  small  amounts  of  meat.  This  is  arranged  with 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT  147 

wire  netting  shelves  to  hold  the  pieces  of  meat  or  with 
hooks  from  which  the  meat  is  hung.  A  hole  about  fifteen 
inches  deep  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  the  bark  or  other 
source  of  smoke  is  burned  in  this.  This  sort  of  a  smoke 
house  is  very  satisfactory  for  fish  because  the  flavor  and 
texture  of  the  fish  is  improved  by  the  relatively  high 
temperatures  resulting  from  this  arrangement. 

Bacon,  hams,  and  beef  should,  however,  be  kept  as 
cool  as  possible.  The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  56 
is  well  suited  to  the  purpose.  The  smoke  is  generated 
outside  the  house  and  is  conducted  to  the  floor  of  the 
house  by  means  of  several  pieces  of  stove  pipe.  The 
house  should  be  tall  so  that  there  will  be  as  little  heat  as 
possible.  A  little  ventilation  is  necessary  to  draw  the 
smoke  from  the  fire  box  to  the  house.  If  the  ventilators 
are  placed  just  below  the  level  at  which  the  meat  hangs, 
the  upper  part  of  the  house  and  the  meat  will  hang  con- 
tinually in  a  dense  cloud  of  smoke.  The  openings  should 
be  arranged  so  that  they  may  be  regulated.  Dense 
smoke  without  heat  is  essential  except  in  freezing  weather. 
If  the  meat  becomes  frozen  the  smoke  will  not  penetrate 
and  where  freezing  is  apt  to  occur  it  will  be  necessary  to 
arrange  for  heating  the  house. 

(c)  Smoke  Producing  Substances.  A  great  variety  of 
substances  are  used  for  smoking  meats.  Spent  tan  bark 
from  tanneries  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  smok- 
ing purposes.  It  imparts  an  agreeable  flavor  and  odor 
and  also  gives  a  dense  smoke  without  much  need  of 
close  attention.  Hickory  chips  and  other  hardwood 
chips,  or  hardwood  sawdust  give  good  results.  Corn 
cobs  may  be  used,  but  do  not  produce  such  a  desirable 
flavor  as  does  tan  bark  or  hardwood.  The  smoke- 
producing  material  should  not  blaze;  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  proper  regulation  of  the  ventilation  or  by 
smothering  the  flame  with  moistened  tan  bark  or  hard- 
wood sawdust,  etc.  So-called  "  liquid  smoke  "  preparations 


148     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

may  be  purchased.  These  are  chemical  solutions  which 
produce  a  smoked  taste  in  bacon  or  ham  when  rubbed  on 
the  meat.  Their  use  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  smoking. 

(d)  Length  of  Smoking.     Fish  are  smoked  less  than 
twenty-four  hours,  because  they  take  up  the  smoke  very 
quickly.     The  meat  is  smoked  until  it  has  reached  the 
proper  color,  texture,  and  flavor.     For  pork,  this  will 
ordinarily  be  in  one  to  two  weeks.    If  the  meat  is  to  be 
used  soon  after  smoking,  a  short  period  of  smoking  will 
be  more  satisfactory  than  a  long  one.    Meat,  to  be  kept 
a  long  time,  must  be  thoroughly  cured  by  smoking  to 
prevent  spoiling. 

Beef  is  smoked  thoroughly  and  then  hung  in  a  warm 
dry  place  to  become  as  dry  as  possible.  It  is  known  as 
dried  beef  rather  than  smoked  beef. 

(e)  Storing  Smoked  Meats.     Cured  bacon  and  ham 
may  be  kept  by  wrapping  in  heavy  parchment  paper 
and   then  in  heavy  wrapping  paper  and   storing  the 
wrapped  meat  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

If  the  smoke  house  is  not  needed  for  other  purposes 
the  meat  may  be  left  hanging  in  this.  Smoke  may  be 
started  occasionally  to  drive  away  insects.  Pepper  rubbed 
on  the  surface  of  the  meat  will  also  act  as  insect  repellant. 

Ham  and  bacon  may  also  be  kept  by  placing  the  pieces 
on  a  layer  of  sifted  ashes  and  covering  with  a  thick  layer 
of  the  same.  Beef  should  be  hung  in  a  dry  place.  Fish 
should  not  contain  too  much  moisture  before  storing. 
It  will  usually  be  necessary  to  dry  the  smoked  fish  several 
days  in  the  sun  before  storing. 

106.  Miscellaneous  Meat  Products.  Lard,  mince- 
meat, head  cheese,  sausage,  pickled  pigs'  feet,  and  other 
meat  products  may  be  made  on  the  farm.  They  are  of 
less  importance  than  the  methods  of  preservation  just 
discussed  and  are  to  be  considered  more  as  means  of 
preparing  meat  for  the  table  than  as  methods  of  pres- 
ervation, the  subject  with  which  this  book  aims  to  deal. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT  149 

107.  Preservation  of  Eggs  with  Water  Glass.  Water 
glass  is  a  clear  sirupy  liquid  that  may  be  obtained  from 
drug  stores  and  often  from  groceries  for  the  preservation 
of  eggs.  It  is  used  in  two  ways. 

It  may  be  diluted  with  from  nine  to  twelve  parts  of 
water  to  one  part  of  water  glass  and  used  as  a  liquid  in 
which  the  eggs  are  stored.  Tin,  glass,  stoneware,  or 
wooden  containers  may  be  used.  The  container  should 
be  well  covered  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  water 
and  the  eggs  should  be  well  covered  with  the  liquid. 

In  the  second  method  the  eggs  are  dipped  in  a  solution 
of  one  pint  of  water  glass  to  three  pints  of  water.  They 
are  drained  and  allowed  to  dry  on  a  layer  of  flour  or  corn 
starch  or  precipitated  chalk.  When  dry  they  are  dipped 
in  the  water  glass  and  dried  as  before.  They  are  then 
packed  in  bran  or  saw  dust.  The  water  glass  acts  as  an 
air  tight  seal. 

Eggs  will  keep  a  year  or  more  by  either  method. 
Fresh  clean  eggs  must  be  used.  Do  not  wash  them.  Use 
non-fertile  eggs  if  they  can  be  had.  The  eggs  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool  place. 

Eggs  stored  in  water  glass  will  in  time  develop  a  slight 
stale  taste,  but  will  still  be  wholesome.  They  are  not  so 
suitable  as  fresh  eggs  for  frying  because  the  yolks  are  apt 
to  break.  They  should  not  be  used  for  hard  boiling  as  a 
"  sulphur  "  odor  may  develop  if  the  eggs  have  been  kept 
several  months  in  the  solution.  For  other  purposes  they 
are  very  satisfactory. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MILK  PRODUCTS 

The  manufacture  of  condensed  milk,  dried  milk, 
cheese,  and  butter  constitutes  a  series  of  very  important 
dairy  industries.  A  full  discussion  and  description  of  these 
industries  would  be  entirely  outside  the  scope  of  this 
book.  In  the  following  pages  only  that  material  is  taken 
up  which  will  be  of  most  interest  and  value  to  those 
desiring  to  preserve  moderate  amounts  of  butter  or  who 
desire  to  make  a  small  amount  of  cheese  or  who  wish  to 
pasteurize  milk  in  a  small  way.  No  attempt  or  claim  is 
made  to  give  a  description  of  commercial  installations  or 
practices. 
108.  Sterilization  and  Pasteurization  of  Milk. 

(a)  Sterilization.    Enormous  quantities  of  canned  milk 
are  used.    Commercial  factories  concentrate  milk  before 
canning  and  sterilization.    This  must  be  done  in  a  vac- 
uum evaporator  and  cannot  be  carried  out  on  a  small 
scale.    Milk  may  be  sterilized  in  sealed  cans  under  steam 
pressure  at  ten  pounds'  pressure  for  forty  minutes  or  for 
one  hour  at  212®  F.  on  each  of  three  successive  days. 
Milk  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  sterilize  because  of  the 
spore-bearing  bacteria  present.    There  is,  however,  very 
little  need  of  sterilizing  milk  in  the  household  because 
it  is  usually  not  necessary  to  keep  it  more  than  two  or 
three  days.    Pasteurization  is,  however,  useful. 

(b)  Pasteurization  of  Milk  in  the  Household.     Milk 
heated  to  140°  to  160°  F.  will  keep  much  longer  than  un- 
heated  milk.    Heating  to  this  temperature  kills  many  of 
the  bacteria  and  so  weakens  those  not  killed  that  their 
growth  is  very  much  slowed  up. 

150 


MILK  PRODUCTS  151 

Pasteurization  may  be  accomplished  in  bottles  or  in 
open  pots.  If  carried  out  in  bottles  the  bottles  should  be 
scalded  before  filling.  The  filled  bottles  should  be  sealed 
with  sterilized  corks.  They  may  be  heated  in  a  pot  of 
water  with  bottles  completely  immersed  until  the  water 
reaches  150°  F.  Maintain  at  this  temperature  for  twenty 
minutes.  Remove  and  cool.  A  thermometer  must  be 
inserted  in  the  water  to  test  the  temperature. 

The  milk  may  also  be  pasteurized  by  heating  in  a  pot 
to  145°  F.  at  which  temperature  it  is  maintained  for 
twenty-five  minutes.  A  double  boiler  is  best.  Pour  into 
scalded  jars  or  bottles.  For  practical  purposes  milk  may 
be  pasteurized  by  heating  in  a  pot  to  the  simmering 
point  or  by  "  scalding  ";  that  is,  heating  to  boiling.  This 
is  often  necessary  for  the  keeping  of  milk  in  hot  weather. 

Pasteurized  milk  will  keep  considerably  longer  than  the 
unpasteurized,  and  will  not  contain  living  typhoid  or 
tuberculosis  bacteria.  Where  there  is  any  suspicion  that 
milk  may  be  infected  with  disease  organisms  it  should  be 
pasteurized;  or  if  a  thermometer  is  not  available  it  should 
be  heated  to  boiling  ("  scalded  ")  before  use. 

109.  Storage  of  Butter.  Butter  may  be  kept  very 
satisfactorily  in  cold  storage,  but  this  is  rarely  available 
on  the  farm.  The  most  practical  method  for  farm  use  is 
preservation  by  salting.  Butter  should  be  kept  cool, 
excluded  from  the  air  and  away  from  the  light.  The 
spoiling  of  butter  is  brought  about  by  the  formation  of 
fatty  acids  from  the  butter  fat  and  the  decomposition  of 
the  proteins  and  sugar  in  the  buttermilk  left  in  the 
butter.  These  changes  are  largely  bacterial  in  nature, 
although  partly  a  simple  chemical  change.  Exclusion  of 
air  lessens  the  tendency  for  decomposition  by  bacteria. 

Preservation  by  salt  may  be  accomplished  by  adding 
from  one-half  to  one  pound  of  salt  to  each  ten  pounds  of 
butter.  The  salt  is  worked  in  thoroughly.  The  butter  is 
packed  tightly  in  crocks  and  covered  with  salt. 


152     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Butter  may  also  be  preserved  by  adding  one-fourth  to 
one  half  a  pound  of  salt  to  each  ten  pounds  of  butter  and 
then  storing  the  salt  in  a  saturated  brine  (three  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water).  This  is  the  usual 
household  method.  Such  butter  should  be  "  freshened  " 
by  working  in  cold  water  before  use. 

Butter  contains  casein  and  buttermilk  which  tend  to 
decompose.  These  can  be  removed  by  heating  the  butter 
in  boiling  water  a  short  time.  The  casein  is  coagulated 
and  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  The  melted  fat  may 
be  skimmed  or  poured  off  without  mixing  any  water  with 
it.  It  is  then  poured  in  dry  jars,  allowed  to  cool,  and  is 
sealed  with  paraffin.  The  butter  is  stored  until  it  is  to  be 
used  and  keeps  well  in  this  form.  It  must  be  salted  be- 
fore it  is  used. 
110.  Cheese. 

(a)  "  Cottage  "  Cheese.  The  only  cheese  that  may 
be  made  satisfactorily  without  special  experience  and 
training  is  "  cottage  "  cheese  or  "  schmier  kase."  Form- 
erly this  product  was  made  only  in  the  home.  In  recent 
years,  however,  it  has  been  made  in  large  quantities  for 
sale  in  delicatessens,  restaurants,  and  cafeterias. 

Skim  milk  is  ordinarily  used.  It  must  be  clean  and  of 
good  quality.  The  first  step  is  the  formation  of  the  curd. 
This  is  ordinarily  accomplished  by  permitting  the  milk 
to  sour  naturally  or  by  addition  of  a  starter  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria.  It  may  also  be  accomplished  by  the  addition  of 
rennet,  as  in  the  making  of  hard  cheese,  but  this  produces 
rather  a  tough  curd.  Seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  is 
considered  the  best  temperature  for  souring  of  the  milk. 

The  curdled  milk  must  next  be  heated  to  coagulate  the 
curd.  This  should  not  be  carried  out  at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature, or  the  curd  will  be  tough  and  dry.  The  milk 
should  be  heated  slowly  to  about  100°  F.,  i.  e.,  blood 
temperature  or  a  little  higher  and  kept  at  this  tempera- 
ture until  the  curd  seems  firm  and  the  whey  clear.  About 


MILK  PRODUCTS  153 

half  an  hour's  heating  at  this  temperature  will  be  suffi- 
cient. 

The  curd  is  then  drained  through  a  cheesecloth  for 
several  hours.  It  is  then  broken  up  with  a  wooden  potato 
masher  or  with  the  hand.  About  one  ounce  (one  table- 
spoonful)  of  salt  is  added  to  each  five  pounds  of  curd. 
Other  flavorings,  such  as  finely  chopped  pimento,  or 
black  pepper,  or  various  spices  may  also  be  added. 
"  Pimento "  cottage  cheese  is  especially  popular  in 
California.  If  a  rich  flavor  is  desired,  cream  or  melted 
butter  is  added  and  worked  into  the  cheese. 

Cottage  cheese  must  be  used  within  three  or  four  days 
after  it  is  made  and  is  best  when  fresh.  It  does  not  ripen 
and  improve  with  age  in  the  way  that  other  cheese  does. 

(b)  Cheddar  Cheese.    This  is  the  most  common  type 
of  American  cheese.     It  is  made  from  whole  milk.     It 
cannot  be  made  very  successfully  without  considerable 
experience. 

The  first  step  is  the  souring  of  the  milk  to  .2%  acid. 
This  is  done  by  the  addition  of  a  starter  of  lactic  bacteria 
and  must  be  carefully  watched  by  a  chemical  determina- 
tion of  the  acid. 

Rennet  is  then  added.  This  is  a  substance  obtained 
from  the  lining  of  calves'  stomachs.  It  may  be  purchased 
also  under  the  name  of  junket  tablets.  Rennet  coagulates 
or  curdles  the  casein.  The  curd  is  cut  into  cubes  and  left 
until  the  acid  reaches  1%.  It  is  then  salted,  pressed,  and 
left  to  ripen. 

The  ripening  process  is  a  very  complex  one  brought 
about  by  bacterial  and  enzyme  action.  Lactic  acid  is 
formed  from  the  milk  sugar  left  in  the  curd ;  the  casein  or 
curd  is  softened  and  partially  decomposed  and  the  butter 
fat  undergoes  partial  decomposition.  Most  of  these 
changes  are  brought  about  by  bacteria  occurring  in  the 
milk. 

(c)  Other  Types  of  Cheese.    There  are  numerous  other 


154     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

types  of  cheese.  Space  will  not  permit  their  discussion 
here.  Bulletin  146  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  good 
descriptions  of  the  various  types.  This  bulletin  may  be 
obtained  free  of  charge  by  writing  to  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  not 
recommended  that  the  making  of  cheese  (except  cottage 
cheese)  be  undertaken  on  the  farm  unless  in  a  small 
experimental  way  and  with  the  personal  advice  and 
supervision  of  some  one  experienced  in  chesee  making. 
Recipes  for  cottage  cheese  and  gouda  cheese  will  be  found 
in  Part  III. 


PART  III 
FOOD  PRESERVATION  RECIPES 

The  first  two  divisions  of  this  book  have  been  devoted 
to  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of  food  preservation 
and  general  descriptions  of  processes.  The  third  divi- 
sion, i.  e.y  Part  III,  gives  working  directions  for  the  carry- 
ing out  in  the  household  or  on  the  farm,  of  the  various 
food  preservation  methods.  Very  little  discussion  ac- 
companies the  recipes.  It  is  strongly  advised  that  the 
corresponding  discussion  in  Part  II  be  read  before  taking 
up  the  actual  directions  of  the  recipes.  This  will  give 
a  better  understanding  of  the  recipes,  so  that  they  may 
be  followed  to  better  advantage. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES 

The  following  recipes  contain  directions  for  the  can- 
ning of  the  most  important  fruits. 

A  discussion  of  the  principles  of  fruit  canning  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  III. 
(1)  Canning  Peaches. 

1.  Pick  the  fruit  when  firm  ripe.     It  should  be  canned 
as  soon  after  picking  as  feasible.    If  for  sale  sort  into  three 
grades  for  quality.    These  may  be  called  Extra  Fancy, 
Fancy,  and  Pie  grade.    The  largest  and  most  perfect  fruit 
forms  the  first  grade;  medium  size  and  quality,  the  second 
grade;  and  the  soft,  small,  and  blemished  fruit  is  placed 
in  the  Pie  grade. 

2.  Peel  the  fruit,  preferably  by  hand.     The  peeling 
knife  illustrated  in  Fig.  2  will  be  found  very  useful. 
Lye  peeling  is  not  recommended  for  small  quantities  of 
fruit.     See  Recipe  4.     The  skin  may  be  slipped  from 
some  varieties  of  peaches  after  scalding  in  hot  water 
and  chilling  in  cold  water. 

3.  Cut  freestone  peaches  in  half  and  remove  pit.    Cut 
clingstone   peaches   to  pit  around  narrow  side   of   the 
fruit.    Insert  pitting  spoon  at  stem  end,  cut  one-half  of 
fruit  from  pit;  the  peach  then  falls  in  halves  and  the  pit 
may  be  scooped  from  the  adhering  half  by  means  of  the 
pitting  spoon.    See  Fig.  2.    If  the  clingstone  peaches  are 
soft  or  difficult  to  pit  when  peeled,  they  should  be  pitted 
before  peeling. 

4.  Addition  of  Sugar.     If  three  grades  of  fruit  have 
been  made,  add  %  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  fruit 
of  first  grade;  to  the  second  grade  ^  pound,  and  to  the 

157 


158     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

pie  grade,  no  sugar.  If  no  grading  has  been  done,  add 
Yz  to  %  pound  of  sugar  per  pound  of  fruit,  depending 
on  the  degree  of  sweetness  desired.  Add  just  enough 
water  to  prevent  scorching.  Heat  slowly  to  boiling  and 
boil  two  or  three  minutes.  This  causes  the  fruit  to  shrink 
before  canning.  Do  not  cook  too  long. 

5.  Pack  boiling  hot  into  scalded  jars  or  cans;  fill  with 
sirup  formed  in  heating.     Place  scalded  rubbers  and 
caps  on  jars  but  do  not  screw  down  tightly.    Place  caps 
on  solder  top  cans;  seal  and  tip  as  directed  in  step  7. 

6.  Sterilizing.    Place  jars  in  washboiler  or  other  steril- 
izer (see  Fig  14),  with  hot  water  in  boiler  half-way  up 
sides  of  jars.     Heat  water  to  boiling  and  keep  boiling 
about  15  min.  for  freestone  varieties  and  20  to  30  min. 
for  firm  clingstone  varieties,  such  as  Philips  and  Tuscan. 
Remove  and  seal.     Wax  top  cans  are  treated  in  same 
way  as  jars;  the  wax  is  not  added  until  the  fruit  is  ster- 
ilized in  the  cans.     Sterilize  solder  top  cans  in  boiling 
water  after  sealing;  No.  1  and  No.  2  cans  10  min.  for 
soft  fruit,  15  min.  for  firm  clingstone  peaches;  No.  2J^ 
and  No.  3  cans  15  min.  for  soft  fruit  and  20  min.  for  firm 
clingstone  varieties;  No.  8  and  No.  10  cans,  30  to  40  min. 
Chill  in  cold  water  after  sterilizing.    The  times  given  will 
vary  somewhat  with  the  condition  of  the  fruit.     It  is  a 
good  plan  to  first  sterilize  two  or  three  cans  as  a  test  be- 
fore canning  any  large  quantity  of  the  fruit. 

7.  Sealing  Solder  Top  Cans. 
Equipment:  (1)  capping  steel, 

(2)  tipping  steel, 

(3)  soldering  fluid, 

(4)  small  bristle  brush, 

(5)  a  gasoline  torch  or  gas  flame  to  heat 

the  irons. 

(6)  wire  solder. 

Tinning  the  Steels.    The  points  of  the  soldering  steels 
must  be  kept  bright  and  coated  with  solder  to  be  usable. 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  159 

Often  the  steels  become  overheated  and  the  coating  is 
burned  off.  The  steel  must  then  be  heated  hot  enough 
to  melt  solder  readily.  The  encrustations  of  burned 
solder  must  then  be  filed  off  with  a  sharp  file  until  the 
iron  surface  is  well  exposed.  The  hot  steel  is  then  dipped 
momentarily  in  soldering  fluid  and  the  surface  is  coated 
with  solder  or  "  tinned  "  by  melting  wire  solder  against 
the  working  surface;  or  the  filed  hot  steel  is  tinned  by 
turning  it  in  a  mixture  of  crystals  of  sal  ammoniac  and 
small  pieces  of  solder.  The  steel  must  be  kept  clean  and 
free  from  carbonized  sirup,  corroded  solder,  etc.,  by  wiping 
with  a  stiff  rag  and  occasional  filing.  Disappointment 
always  ensues  when  dirty  steels  are  used.  See  appendix 
for  method  of  making  soldering  fluid. 

Heating  the  Steels.  To  start  the  gasoline  torch,  pump 
the  reservoir  to  good  air  pressure;  fill  the  cup  of  the 
burner  with  gasoline  by  opening  the  cock;  close  the 
cock  and  burn  off  the  gasoline  to  heat  the  burner  jet  hot 
enough  to  vaporize  the  gasoline;  open  the  cock  and 
light  the  burner.  It  should  burn  with  a  roaring  blue 
flame,  not  a  smoking  luminous  one.  If  it  does  not  do 
so,  increase  the  ah*  pressure  and  heat  the  vaporizing  jet 
of  the  burner  until  a  good  flame  results.  Place  the  steels 
in  the  flame  and  heat  until  they  will  melt  solder  quickly, 
but  not  hot  enough  to  burn  off  the  "  tinning. "  Ex- 
perience is  the  only  guide. 

Cleaning  the  Surface  of  Can  and  Can  Top.  After  the 
can  is  filled,  wipe  out  groove  carefully  with  a  clean  cloth. 
Apply  lid.  Clean  the  surface  of  groove  and  edge  of  lid 
for  soldering  by  brushing  lightly  with  a  small  bristle 
brush  dipped  in  soldering  fluid. 

Soldering  the  Cap.  Clean  the  point  of  the  hot  capping 
steel  with  a  cloth.  Dip  the  steel  in  soldering  fluid  an 
instant.  Apply  the  steel  to  the  groove  of  the  can.  If 
solder  hemmed  caps  are  used  no  solder  need  be  added. 
If  plain  caps  are  used,  a  little  solder  must  be  melted  into 


(3) 


(6) 


FIG.  57.  Capping  and  Tipping  a  Solder  Top  Can.  (1)  Wipe  off 
groove  and  cap  with  cloth  to  remove  sirup,  pulp,  etc.;  (2)  Wipe 
groove  with  brush  dipped  in  soldering  fluid;  (3)  Apply  hot 
capping  steel  and  melt  solder  of  solder  hemmed  cap  or  melt  a 
little  solder  from  solder  wire;  (4)  Turn  the  steel  two  or  three 
turns  backward  and  forward  to  distribute  solder  evenly;  (5) 
Raise  the  steel,  but  hold  lid  down  for  2  or  3  seconds  by  center 
rod  to  allow  solder  to  set;  (6)  wipe  vent  hole  with  soldering 
fluid;  apply  hot  tipping  steel  and  seal  with  drop  of  solder. 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  161 

the  groove  by  pressing  a  strip  of  wire  solder  against  the 
lower  part  of  the  steel.  Turn  the  steel  around  two  or 
three  times  in  the  groove  to  distribute  the  melted  solder. 
Raise  the  steel  and  press  down  on  the  rod  through  the 
center  of  the  steel  a  second  or  two  to  permit  the  solder  to 
set  enough  to  hold  the  lid  in  place.  Remove  the  steel.  One 
heating  of  the  steel  is  usually  enough  for  six  to  ten  cans. 
Tipping.  After  the  can  has  been  capped  and  "  ex- 
hausted "  or  heated  to  expand  its  contents,  the  small 
hole  in  the  center  must  be  closed  before  sterilizing  the 
can.  To  do  this,  heat  the  small  pointed  tipping  steel. 
Clean  the  point.  Dip  it  in  soldering  fluid.  Clean  the 
vent  hole  with  the  bristle  brush  dipped  in  soldering 
fluid.  Melt  a  drop  of  solder  over  the  hole  with  the 
point  of  the  steel.  With  a  little  practice  this  can  be 
done  quickly  and  neatly. 
(2)  Alternative  Methods  for  Canning  Peaches. 

Alternative  Method  A 

In  this  method  all  of  the  cooking  of  the  fruit  is  carried 
out  in  the  can  or  jar.    Do  not  cook  before  canning. 

1.  Make  a  60°  Balling  sirup  for  first  grade  fruit  (12% 
pounds  of  sugar  per  gallon  water) ;  see  table  3 ;  a  40°  sirup 
for  second  grade  fruit,  and  use  plain  water  for  pie  stock. 

2.  Pack  the  peeled  and  pitted  fruit  in  cans  or  jars. 
Fill  with  boiling  hot  sirup  or  water  (according  to  grade 
of  fruit) . 

3.  Sterilize  in  jars  as  in  Recipe  1  for  20  min.  at  212°  F. 
for  freestone  peaches  and  25  to  30  min.  for  clingstone 
peaches;  15  min.  in  cans  for  freestone  peaches  and  20 
to  25  min.  for  clingstone  peaches. 

Alternative  Method  B.     Use  of  Fruit  Juices  Instead  of 

Sugar 

When  sugar  is  very  scarce  and  expensive  the  amount 
needed  for  canning  can  be  greatly  reduced  or  in  some 


162      HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

cases  sugar  may  be  omitted  entirely  by  using  the  fol- 
lowing method: 

1.  Press  and   strain  the  juice  from  ripe   grapes  or 
apples  or  other  fruit  available.     It  should  be  strained 
boiling  hot. 

2.  To  the  strained  juice  add  baking  soda  in  very  small 
amounts.    Stir  after  each  addition  and  taste.     Continue 
the  additions  until  almost  all  of  the  acid  or  tart  taste  has 
disappeared.     If  this  is  not  sweet  enough  add  sugar  to 
taste.    Omit  soda  if  juice  is  very  sweet. 

3.  Pack  the  prepared  fruit  in  cans  or  jars.    Heat  the 
juice  to  boiling  and  fill  the  jars  and  cans  with  it.    Sterilize 
in  the  containers  as  directed  in  Alternative  Method  A 
above. 

(3)  Canning  Apricots. 

1.  Use  ripe  fruit  that  is  not  too  soft.     Grade  into 
Extra  Fancy,  Fancy,  and  Pie  Grades. 

2.  Wash,  cut  in  half  and  remove  pits.    Do  not  peel. 

3.  Add  %  pound  sugar  to  each  pound  of  best  grade 
fruit;  one-half  pound  to  second  grade,  and  none  to  third 
grade.    Add  a  small  amount  of  water  to  prevent  scorch- 
ing.   Bring  to  a  boil  for  2  or  3  min. 

4.  Pack  hot  into  jars  or  cans.    Seal  and  tip  cans,  but 
leave  caps  and  rubbers  loosely  on  jars. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  of  No.   1  and  No.  2  sizes,  8  min.; 
No.  2}/£  and  No.  3,  15  min.;  No.  8  and  No.  10  cans  and 
jars  20  to  25  min.     Count  time  after  the  water  boils. 
Use  washboiler  or  other  convenient  sterilizer.    Chill  cans 
in  water  after  sterilizing.     Seal  jars  and  wax  top  cans 
after  sterilizing. 

6.  Alternative  Methods  for  Apricots. 

Alternative  Method  A 

Make  60%  and  40%  sirups.  Pack  pitted  fruit  in  cans 
or  jars  cold.  Add  hot  60%  sirup  to  Extra  Fancy,  40%  to 
Fancy,  and  water  to  pie  fruit.  Seal  cans.  Sterilize  as 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  163 

in  above  method  but  increase  the  time  5  min.  in  each 
case. 

Alternative  Method  B.    Canning  in  Fruit  Juice 

The  method  for  canning  peaches  in  fruit  juice  de- 
acidified  with  baking  soda  may  be  used  for  apricots.  Omit 
soda  if  juice  is  sweet.  See  Recipe  2,  Part  B. 

Alternative  Method  C.    Lye  Peeling 

Apricots  may  be  lye  peeled  by  the  method  given  in 
Recipe  4.  It  is,  however,  not  recommended  for  home 
use. 

(4)  Lye  Peeling  Peaches  and  Apricots. 

This  method  of  peeling  is  not  strictly  suited  to  home 
use,  but  may  be  useful  in  larger  scale  operations. 

1.  Prepare  a  10%  lye  solution,  12  ounces  of  lye  per 
gallon  of  water.     Heat  this  to  boiling  in  an  iron  pot  or 
tank;  do  not  use  aluminum  or  tin.    Keep  at  the  boiling 
point. 

2.  Cut  peaches  and  apricots  in  half  and  remove  pits. 
The  fruit  must  be  firm. 

3.  Immerse  the  fruit  in  the  boiling  lye  long  enough 
to  separate  the  skins  from  the  flesh.     This  will  take  30 
to  60  seconds.    A  metal  conveyer  is  used  in  factories  to 
carry  the  fruit  through  the  boiling  lye.     A  wire  basket 
will  answer  for  home  use. 

4.  Immerse  the  fruit  in  cold  water  after  dipping  and 
wash  off  the  loosened  peels.    Rinse  in  water  till  all  lye  is 
removed.     The  loosened  skins  can  also  be  removed  by 
vigorous  sprays  of  cold  water.    All  lye  must  be  removed 
or  the  fruit  will  darken. 

5.  The  peeled  fruit  is  then  ready  for  canning  or  drying. 

(5)  Canning  Pears. 

The  Bartlett  pear  is  the  most  popular  for  canning. 
1.  Gather  the  fruit  when  it  has  reached  full  size  but  is 
still  hard  in  texture.    Allow  it  to  ripen  in  a  cool,  shady 


164:     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

place.     The  flavor  and  texture  of  fruit  so  ripened  are 
superior  to  those  of  tree  ripened  fruit. 

2.  Peel;  cut  in  half  and  remove  cores.    See  Fig.  2  for 
appearance  of  peeling  and  coring  knives. 

3.  Grade  into  three  grades.    If  pears  are  held  very  long 
after  peeling,  cover  with  water  to  prevent  darkening. 

4.  Add  }/2  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  best  grade; 
and  about  %  pound  to  each  pound  of  second  grade,  and 
only  water  to  pie  grade.    Add  water  to  cover  to  all  grades 
to  prevent  scorching.     Pears  will  require  more  water 
than  peaches  or  apricots.    Boil  2  to  3  min.  and  pack  hot. 
Seal  solder  top  and  sanitary  cans. 

5.  Sterilize  No.  2^2  and  No.  3  cans  20  min;  No.  8  and 
No.  10  cans  30  to  35  min;  and  jars  25  min.  in  boiling 
water.    Cool  cans  in  water  and  seal  jars  after  sterilizing. 

6.  Alternative  Methods. 

Alternative  Method  A 

Prepare  a  40%  sirup  and  a  20%  sirup;  5%  and  2 
pounds  sugar  per  gallon  respectively.  Pack  uncooked 
fruit,  peeled  in  cans  and  jars.  Add  boiling  hot  40%  sirup 
to  best  grade;  20%  to  second  grade,  and  water  to  pie 
grade.  Seal  cans.  Sterilize  as  above  but  add  5  min.  time 
of  cooking  in  each  case.  Pears  do  not  shrink  very  much 
in  canning  and  therefore  this  method  is  well  suited  to 
them. 

Alternative  Method  B.    Use  of  Fruit  Juices 

Fruit  juices  may  be  substituted  for  sugar  sirups  if 
method  B  of  Recipe  2  is  used. 
(6)  Canning  of  Cherries. 

Cherries  for  canning  should  be  of  the  sweet  varieties 
and  thoroughly  ripe. 

1.  Stem  and  grade  into  three  grades. 

2.  Pit  with  small  kitchen  size  pitter,  if  desired.     Un- 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  165 

pitted  canned  cherries  develop  a  slight  pit  flavor  that 
many  prefer  to  the  flavor  of  the  pitted  fruit. 

3.  To  best  grade  add  ^2  pound  of  sugar  per  pound  of 
fruit;  to  second  grade  J^  pound.    Add  water  to  cover.    Add 
only  water  to  pie  fruit.     Heat  very  slowly  to  boiling. 
Pack  boiling  hot  in  cans  or  jars. 

4.  Sterilize   as   directed   for   apricots   and   for   same 
lengths  of  time.    (See  Recipe  3.) 

(7)  Canning  of  Apples. 

Apples  are  usually  canned  for  pie  making,  and  for  this 
purpose  sugar  is  ordinarily  omitted.  Use  ripe,  sound 
fruit. 

1.  Peel  and  core  the  apples  and  cut  into  quarters. 
Grading  is  not  necessary.     (See  Fig.  4  for  small  peeling 
and  coring  machine.) 

2.  Add  a  small  amount  of  water  to  apples  in  pot.    Heat 
to  boiling.    Pack  boiling  hot  into  cans  or  jars. 

3.  Sterilize  No.  2J/2  or  No.  3  cans,  and  wax  top  cans 
10  min.;  No.  8  and  No.  10  cans  15  min.  and  jars  15  min. 
in  washboiler  or  similar  sterilizer,  counting  time  after 
water  boils. 

4.  Sugar  may  be  added  in  "  2  "  at  rate  of  J^  pound  of 
sugar  per  pound  of  fruit,  if  desired. 

(8)  Canning  of  Plums. 

Plums  tend  to  break  up  badly  during  cooking  and 
sterilization  because  the  fruit  is  soft  when  ripe.  The 
white  egg  plum  is  popular  for  canning  purposes. 

1.  Remove  stems  and  grade  fruit  into  three  grades. 
To  each  pound  of  best  grade  add  one  pound  of  sugar;  to 
second  grade  J^  pound.    Add  a  little  water  to  all  three 
grades.    Heat  to  boiling  and  boil  2  or  3  min.    Pack  hot 
into  jars  or  cans. 

2.  Sterilize  for  same  lengths  of  time  as  directed  for 
apricots.    (See  Recipe  3,  5.) 

3.  Alternative  Methods.     Plums  may  also  be  canned 
by  the  methods  given  in  Recipe  2. 


166     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(9)  Canning  of  Rhubarb. 

Rhubarb,  although  a  vegetable,  resembles  the  sour 
fruits  in  composition.  It  is  canned  as  a  fruit  rather  than 
as  a  vegetable.  It  cooks  down  badly  during  sterilization; 
it  is  therefore  advisable  to  cook  it  before  canning.  Plain 
tin  cans  cannot  be  used  because  of  the  high  acidity  of 
the  rhubarb.  Enamel  lined  cans  or  glass  jars  must  be 
employed. 

1.  Wash  the  rhubarb  and  cut  into  lengths  1  to  2  inches 
long  and  place  in  a  pot.     If  for  sauce,  add  1  pound  of 
sugar  to  each  pound  of  rhubarb  with  a  little  water;  if  for 
pie  stock,  only,  add  a  little  water.    Bring  to  boil.    Boil 
3  to  4  min.  and  pack  hot  into  jars  or  cans.    Use  enamel 
lined  cans;  plain  tin  will  corrode. 

2.  Sterilize  in  a  washboiler  or  other  sterilizer  in  boiling 
water;  No.  2J/£  or  No.  3  cans  10  min.  and  jars  15  min. 

(10)  Canning  of  Rhubarb  without  Sterilization. 

1.  Choose  clean  sound  stalks.    Cut  in  lengths  to  fit  the 
jars  used.    Wash  the  rhubarb  thoroughly  and  scald  the 
jars  and  caps. 

2.  Pack  the  rhubarb  into  the  jars  and  fill  jars  to  over- 
flowing with  cold  water.    Seal  tightly  and  store  in  a  cool 
place. 

Rhubarb  because  of  its  extreme  acidity  will  keep  sev- 
eral months  to  a  year  put  up  in  this  way. 

(11)  Canning  of  Figs. 

Figs  are  canned  as  preserves.  White  figs  are  preferred 
to  black.  Pick  the  figs  firm  ripe  but  not  too  soft.  Handle 
carefully. 

1.  To  each  pound  of  figs  in  a  pot  add  1  pound  of  sugar 
and  2  pints  of  water.  Cook  very  slowly  down  to  a  heavy 
preserve  or  until  the  sirup  boils  at  220°  F.,  or  until  the 
hot  sirup  tests  28°  Baume  or  to  60°  Balling.  This  will 
take  at  least  one  hour.  The  figs  should  hold  their  shape. 
Some  varieties  of  figs  will  show  shriveling  during  cooking 
unless  the  fruit  is  pierced  in  a  number  of  places  with  a 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  167 

tooth  pick  or  large  needle  or  table  fork,  so  that  the  sirup 
will  penetrate.  The  figs  will  usually  be  more  plump  if 
punctured  in  this  way  before  cooking. 

2.  Pack  the  boiling  hot  figs  and  sirup  into  cans  or  jars. 
Sterilize  cans  15  min.  and  jars  20  min.  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water  as  directed  for  peaches  and  other 
fruits. 

3.  Figs  in  Water  or  Light  Sirup.    During  the  rush  of 
the  season,  it  may  be  inconvenient  to  make  the  figs  into 
preserves.    If  so,  they  may  be  canned  in  water  or  a  25% 
sirup.    Pack  the  fresh  figs  into  cans  or  jars.    Cover  with  a 
hot  25%  sirup  (1  cup  sugar  to  3  cups  water  or  2%  pounds 
per  gallon),  or  with  water.    Seal  cans  except  wax  top  cans. 
Place  covers  and  rubbers  on  jars  and  wax  top  cans  loosely. 
Sterilize  1J4  hours  in  boiling  water.    Figs  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  sterilize  under  these  conditions  and  require  at 
least  one  hour  at  212°  F.    Later  these  jars  or  cans  may  be 
opened  and  the  figs  cooked  down  to  a  preserve  with 
sugar.    The  Kadota,  Brown  Turkey,  and  White  Endich 
are  the  best  of  California  grown  figs  for  canning.     The 
Adriatic  is  fairly  satisfactory.     The  Smyrna  breaks  up 
badly  and  the  Mission  is  dark  colored.     The  Magnolia 
is  used  in  Texas  for  canning.    The  Celeste  fig  is  excellent. 
(12)  Canning  of  Strawberries. 

Strawberries  are  usually  preserved  in  a  heavy  sirup; 
but  are  also  canned  more  or  less  extensively  in  medium 
sirup.  Strawberries  shrink  badly  during  sterilization. 
Therefore,  they  should  be  cooked  before  canning.  Use 
sound,  ripe,  well  colored  fruit. 

1.  Wash,  sort,  and  stem. 

2.  Place  the  fruit  in  a  kettle  and  add  an  equal  amount 
of  sugar  by  weight.    Heat  slowly  to  boiling.    Boil  slowly 
about  5  min.    Allow  to  stand  in  the  pot  over  night.    This 
allows  the  sirup  to  penetrate. 

3.  Pack  into  cans  or  jars.     Heat  solder  top  and  san- 
itary cans  in  boiling  water  3  to  5  min.  before  sealing. 


168     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

4.  Sterilize  cans  10  min.  and  jars  15  min.  in  boiling 
water. 

(13)  Canning  of  Blackberries. 

1.  Sort  into  two  grades:  one  Fancy  and  the  other  Pie 
Grade. 

2.  To  the  better  grade,  add  an  equal  weight  of  sugar. 
Cook  slowly  until  the  sugar  dissolves.    Pack  into  cans  or 
jars.    To  pie  grade  add  very  small  amount  of  water  and 
heat  to  boiling.    Pack  hot.    Use  enamel  lined  cans  and 
glass  jars  only. 

3.  Sterilize  cans  10  min.  at  the  boiling  point  of  water 
and  jars  15  min. 

4.  Alternative  Methods. 

Alternative  Method  A 

In  this  method  pack  the  berries  into  cans  or  jars  before 
cooking.  Add  hot  50%  sirup  (1  pound  sugar  to  1  pint  of 
water),  to  better  grade  and  water  to  pie  grade.  Sterilize 
20  min.  at  temperature  of  boiling  water.  Blackberries 
canned  in  this  way  will  shrink  badly  in  volume  after 
canning. 

Alternative  Method  B 

The  berries  may  also  be  canned  as  directed  in  Method 
B,  Recipe  2. 

(14)  Canning  of  Raspberries  and  Loganberries. 

I     These  berries  may  be  canned  as  directed  for  black- 
berries,   (see  Recipe  13.) 

(15)  Canning  of  Oranges. 

Oranges  must.be  sterilized  below  the  boiling  point  of 
water;  not  above  180°  F.  The  fruit  must  be  very  ripe  or 
almost  overripe  in  order  that  it  will  not  turn  bitter  in  the 
can.  A  thermometer  is  necessary. 

1.  Peel  and  cut  in  slices  about  J^  inch  thick.  Pack 
into  enamel  lined  cans  or  glass  jars. 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  169 

2.  Prepare  a  50%  sirup  (1  pound  sugar  to  1  pint  of 
water).    Heat  the  sirup  to  150°  F.  and  fill  the  cans  or 
jars.    Seal  the  jars  and  cans  tightly. 

3.  Place  in  a  large  pot  or  boiler  of  water  at  about 
120°  F.    The  pot  or  boiler  should  contain  a  false  bottom 
of  wire  screen  or  wooden  slats  to  protect  the  jars  from  the 
direct  heat  of  the  fire.    The  jars  and  cans  must  be  com- 
pletely immersed. 

4.  Heat  the  water  slowly  to  175°  F.    Keep  it  at  this 
temperature  for  45  min.    Keep  thermometer  inserted  in 
the  water  and  watch  the  temperature  carefully;  it  should 
not  exceed  180°  F. 

Canned  oranges  do  not  retain  their  flavor  for  any  great 
length  of  time,  usually  not  longer  than  three  months. 
After  that  time  they  become  "  stale  "  in  flavor  but  are 
still  edible. 

(16)  Canning  of  Grape  Fruit. 

Grape  fruit  after  sterilization  in  cans  or  jars  is  very 
satisfactory  as  a  base  for  fruit  cocktails,  "  before  break- 
fast dishes,"  etc. 

1.  Peel  and  cut  fruit  in  small  pieces  about  }/%  inch 
square  or  of  proper  size  for  fruit  cocktails,  etc.     Pack 
into  jars;  if  not  in  jars,  in  enamel  lined  cans.     Plain  tin 
corrodes  and  cannot  be  used.     Fill  the  jars  or  cans  with 
fresh  grape  fruit  juice  which  has  been  heated  to  150°  to 
160°  F.    Use  a  thermometer. 

2.  Sterilize  as  directed  for  oranges  for  30  min.   at 
175°  F.    (See  Recipe  15.) 

(17)  Canning  of  Grapes. 

The  Muscat  is  the  most  popular  grape  for  canning. 
Use  large,  thoroughly  ripe  fruit.  They  are  used  largely 
for  pies.  Other  varieties  may  be  used. 

1.  Wash  and  remove  from  stems.     Cut  the  grapes  in 
half  and  remove  seeds  if  a  high  quality  product  is  de- 
sired. 

2.  Pack  in  cans  or  jars  without  previous  heating.    To 


170     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

fruit  for  dessert  purposes  add  a  hot  40%  sirup,  and  to  pie 
fruit,  hot  water. 

3.  Sterilize  in  a  washboiler  or  other  sterilizer  at  212°  F. ; 
cans  10  min.;  jars  20  min.  Grapes  may  also  be  canned 
without  removing  seeds,  but  the  quality  of  the  finished 
product  is  much  better  if  seeds  are  removed. 

(18)  Canning  of  Pineapples. 

Pineapples  are  extensively  grown  for  canning  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  Only  fruit  thoroughly  ripened  in  the 
field  is  used. 

The  fruit  is  first  topped  and  butted  by  machinery. 
It  is  next  peeled  or  cut  to  the  diameter  of  a  No.  2J/2  can 
and  the  core  is  removed  in  the  same  machine.  The  fruit 
is  then  sliced.  It  is  packed  in  cans,  several  grades  being 
made  according  to  appearance  of  slices.  A  50%  (1  pound 
of  sugar  to  1  pint  of  water),  sirup  is  added  to  the  best 
grade.  The  poorest  grade  is  shredded  and  canned  in  a 
light  sirup.  The  cans  are  sterilized  35  to  40  min.  at 
212°  F. 

Canned  pineapple  may  be  purchased  more  cheaply 
than  fresh  pineapple  and  unless  there  is  a  supply  of  home 
grown  material,  it  will  not  pay  to  can. 

(19)  Canning  of  Currants,  Cranberries,and  Gooseberries. 
These  fruits  may  be  put  up  in  jars  for  use  in  jams, 

jellies,  and  pies.     Do  not  use  tin  because  of  the  high 
acidity  of  the  fruit. 

1.  Wash  and  pack  in  jars  uncooked. 

2.  Add  water  hot  and  sterilize  with  caps  on  jars  loosely 
10  min.  in  a  washboiler  or  similar  sterilizer,  counting 
the  time  from  the  time  the  water  boils.     Remove  jars 
and  tighten  caps. 


CHAPTER  XX 
CANNING  VEGETABLES 

The  general  principles  of  vegetable  canning  will  be 
found  in  Part  II,  Chap.  IV.  The  following  recipes  con- 
sist of  working  directions  only;  it  is  therefore  advised 
that  Chap.  IV  be  read  before  the  actual  canning  be 
undertaken, 
(20)  Canning  of  Artichokes. 

Use  only  young,  tender  artichokes. 

1.  Trim  off  hard  tips,  and  stems  and  outer  leaves, 
leaving  only  the  tender  parts. 

2.  Parboil  or  blanch  in  boiling  water  for  5  to  10  min. 
This  is  best  done  by  placing  the  vegetables  in  a  wire 
basket  or  cheesecloth  and  immersing  in  the  boiling  water. 
Chill  slightly  in  cold  water.    Pack  into  jars  or  cans  whole 
if  possible.    Cut  to  fit  can  if  necessary. 

3.  Fill  with  boiling  hot  brine  of  3  ounces  of  salt  per 
gallon  and  4  fluid  ounces  (%  pint),  of  lemon  juice  or  very 
strong  vinegar  per  gallon.     A  measuring  cup  or  table- 
spoon may  be  used  to  measure  the  lemon  juice.     Two 
tablespoons  equal  one  ounce  of  liquid. 

4.  Sterilize  cans,   after  sealing,   one  hour  in  boiling 
water  and  jars  one  and  one-half  hours.    If  the  jar  rubbers 
swell  and  become  loose,  they  may  be  placed  on  the  jars 
after  an  hour's  sterilization;  this  subjects  them  to  only  a 
half  hour's  sterilization. 

5.  Pressure  Method.     Lemon  juice  may  be  omitted 
in  the  above  formula,  but  if  this  is  done  the  vegetables 
must  be  sterilized  in  sealed  cans  in  a  steam  pressure 
sterilizer  at  ten  pounds'  pressure  for  20  min.    See  par.  21, 

171 


172     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Chap.  IV.    Do  not  attempt  to  use  jars  in  a  steam  pres- 
sure sterilizer.    The  breakage  will  be  too  great. 

6.  Three-Day    Method.      In    this    method    omit    the 
lemon   juice  but  sterilize   one  hour   on   each   of  three 
successive  days  in  boiling  water.     (See  par.  21,  Chap. 
IV.) 

7.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    If  the  lemon  juice  and 
vinegar  are  omitted,  sterilize  cans  for  4  hours  at  212°  F. 
and  jars  4J^  hours.     (See  par.  24,  Chap.  IV.) 

(21)  Canning  of  Asparagus. 

1.  Use  tender  tips  freshly  cut  from  the  garden  or  field. 
Freshness  is  essential. 

2.  Wash.     Grade  into  three  sizes.     Cut  to  length  of 
jar  or  can. 

3.  Parboil  or  blanch  in  boiling  water  2  to  10  min.  de- 
pending on  size  of  stalks.     (See  Recipe  1.) 

4.  Chill  in  cold  water.     Scrape  skin  from  very  large 
stalks. 

5.  Pack  into  cans  or  jars  neatly  with  blossom  ends  up. 
Square  cans  are  most  commonly  used. 

6.  Fill  with  boiling  hot  brine  of  3  ounces  salt  (3  table- 
spoonfuls),    and    5    ounces    (10   tablespoonfuls),    lemon 
juice  or  strong  vinegar  per  gallon  of  water. 

7.  Seal  cans.    Place  scalded  rubbers  and  caps  loosely 
on  jars. 

8.  Sterilize  cans  in  boiling  water  one  hour  and  jars  one 
and  one-half  hours. 

9.  Pressure  Method.     Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar. 
Sterilize  in  cans  20  min.  at  ten  pounds  pressure  240°  F. 
Do  not  use  jars  in  this  method. 

10.  Three-Day  Method.     Sterilize  in  boiling  water  one 
hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days.     (See  par.  24, 
Chap.  IV.)    Do  not  use  lemon  juice  or  vinegar. 

11.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    If  the  lemon  juice  and 
vinegar  are  omitted  from  above  brine  and  steam  pressure 
is  not  used  the  asparagus  may  be  sterilized  by  heating 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  173 

cans  or  jars  in  boiling  water  for  5  hours.    Less  time  than 
this  may  result  in  fatal  poisoning. 

(22)  Canning  of  Green  String  Beans  and  Wax  Beans. 

1.  Use  small  tender  pods  only  for  the  best  results. 
Grade  into  two  sizes.     The  smaller  grade  will  be  most 
tender. 

2.  String  and  break  or  cut  into  pieces  as  for  table  use. 
Large  pods  are  greatly  improved  by  cutting  into  thin 
pieces  lengthwise. 

3.  Parboil  or  blanch  in  boiling  water;  the  small  tender 
pods  3  min.  and  larger,  tougher  pods  6  min.  or  longer. 
Par  boiling  is  easily  done  by  placing  the  beans  in  a  cheese- 
cloth bag  and  immersing  in  boiling  water.    Chill  momen- 
tarily in  cold  water.    (See  par.  17,  Chap.  IV.) 

4.  Pack  into  cans  or  jars.    Add  a  boiling  hot  brine  of 

2  oz.  (2  tablespoonfuls),  salt  and  4  fluid  oz.   (8  table- 
spoonfuls),  lemon  juice  per  gallon  of  water.    Seal  cans. 
Place  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  1J/2  hours  in  boiling  water;  jars  2 
hours  at  the  same  temperature.    (See  par.  21,  Chap.  IV.) 
Remove  jars  and  seal. 

6.  Pressure  Method.     Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar 
in  above  formula.    Sterilize  in  cans,  only  30  min.  under 
10  Ib.  steam  pressure,  240°  F. 

7.  Three-Day  Method.    Omit  lemon  juice  and  vine- 
gar  from    brine.      Sterilize    in    boiling    water    1    hour 
on  each  of  three  successive  days.    (See  par.  21,  Chap. 
IV.) 

(23)  Canning  of  Beets. 

1.  Use  small  red  beets  of  good  color.    Turnip  shaped 
beets  are  preferred.    Wash,  cut  off  tops  and  roots. 

2.  Parboil  until  the  skins  will  slip  easily.     This  will 
be  10  to  15  min.  boiling. 

3.  Chill  in  cold  water  and  peel. 

4.  Pack  into  jars  or  cans.    Add  a  boiling  hot  brine  of 

3  oz.   (3  tablespoonfuls)  salt  and  4  fluid  oz.   (8  table- 


174     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

spoonfuls),  lemon  juice  or  strong  vinegar  per  gal.     Seal 
cans  and  place  caps  on  jars  loosely. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  1  hour  in  boiling  water  and  jars  1J^ 
hours. 

6.  Pressure  Method.     Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar 
in  above  recipe.     Sterilize  cans  30  min.  at  10  Ibs.  pres- 
sure, 240°  F. 

7.  Three- Day  Method.    Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar. 
Sterilize  1  hour  in  boiling  water  on  each  of  three  suc- 
cessive days. 

8.  One- Day  Method  at  212°  F.     If  the  lemon  juice  or 
vinegar  are  omitted  from  the  brine,  sterilize  cans  4}/2 
hours  and  jars  5  hours  at  212°  for  one  day  only. 

(24)  Canning  cf  Carrots,  Turnips,  Parsnips  and  Onions. 

1.  Peel  and  cut  in  pieces  as  for  table  use. 

2.  Place  in  cans  or  jars.    Add  a  hot  brine  of  4  flukl  oz. 
of   lemon   juice   or   strong   vinegar    (8   tablespoonf uls) , 
and  3  oz.  by  weight  (3  tablespoonf  uls),  salt  per  gallon 
of  water.     Seal  cans.     Leave  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars 
loosely. 

3.  Sterilize  cans  1J/2  hours  in  boiling  water  and  jars 
2  hours. 

4.  Pressure  Method.    As  for  beets  (See  Recipe  23,  6.) 

5.  Three-Day    Method.     As    for    beets.     (See    Recipe 
23,  7.) 

6.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    If  lemon  j  uice  or  vinegar 
are  omitted  from  brine,  follow  one-day  method  as  for 
beets.    (See  Recipe  23,  8.) 

(25)  Canning  of  Corn. 

1.  Use  sweet  corn  at  the  best  stage  of  ripeness  for  table 
use.     Can  immediately  after  gathering  from  garden  or 
field.    Remove  husks  and  silk.    Blanch  in  boiling  water 
10  min.  and  chill. 

2.  Cut  the  corn  from  the  cob  avoiding  the  hard  husks 
of  kernels  near  cob;  that  is,  do  not  cut  too  close  to  the 
cob.    Scrape  cobs. 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  175 

3.  Prepare  a  brine  of  ^  Ib.  sugar,  3  oz.  (3  tablespoon- 
fuls)  salt  and  6  fluid  oz.  (12  tablespoonfuls),  lemon  juice 
or  strong  vinegar  per  gallon  of  water. 

4.  Place  the  corn  in  a  pot  and  add  enough  of  the  brine 
to  practically  cover  the  corn.     Heat  to  boiling.     Boil 
about  5  min.    Transfer  while  boiling  hot  to  cans  or  jars. 
Seal,  cans  and  place  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  2  hours  and  jars  2^  hours  in  boiling 
water  by  wash  boiler  or  similar  sterilizer. 

6.  Pressure  Method.     Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar 
from  the  above  recipe.     Sterilize  in  cans  for  50  min. 
under  15  Ibs.  pressure,  250°  F.     No.  2  cans  are  usually 
employed  for  corn.    Do  not  use  glass  jars  in  the  pressure 
method  for  corn. 

7.  Three-Day   Method.     Omit   the   lemon   juice  and 
vinegar  from  the  above  recipe.     Sterilize  cans  or  jars 
for  lj/2  hours  at  212°  on  each  of  three  successive  days. 
Corn  is  hard  to  sterilize  because  the  heat  penetrates 
slowly  and  because  the  corn  is  lacking  in  acid  and  con- 
tains spore-bearing,  heat-resistant  bacteria. 

8.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    If  the  lemon  juice  and 
vinegar  are  omitted  from  brine,  sterilize  both  cans  and 
jars  6  hours  at  212°  F. 

(26)  Canning  of  Green  Peas. 

Peas  are  harvested,  shelled,  cleaned,  and  graded  com- 
mercially by  machinery.  If  all  of  these  operations  are 
carried  out  by  hand  the  product  becomes  too  expensive 
for  marketing  purposes.  Enough  for  canning  for  home 
use  may  be  shelled  by  hand. 

1.  Select  tender  peas.    Shell. 

2.  Place  in  a  cheesecloth  bag  or  wire  basket  and  par- 
boil or  blanch  in  boiling  water  1  to  5  min.  depending  on 
the  size  and  texture.    Chill  in  cold  water. 

3.  Pack  into  jars  or  cans. 

4.  Fill  with  a  boiling  hot  brine  of  2  oz.  of  salt  (2  table- 
spoonfuls),  and  5  fluid  oz.   (10  tablespoonfuls),  lemon 


176     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

juice  or  strong  vinegar  per  gallon  of  water.     Seal  cans. 
Place  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  \y^  hours  and  jars  2  hours  at  212°  F. 
In  cooking  peas  canned  in  this  way  after  opening  the 
can  add  a  little  baking  soda  to  remove  the  lemon  flavor. 

6.  Pressure  Method.    As  for  beets.    (See  Recipe  23,  6.) 

7.  Three- Day    Method.     As    for  beets.    (See    Recipe 
23,  7.) 

8.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  without  Lemon  Juice  or 
Vinegar.     Sterilize  cans  at  212°  F.  5^  hours  and  jars 
6  hours  if  lemon  juice  or  vinegar  are  omitted  from  brine. 

(27)  Canning  of  Pimentos  and  Sweet  Peppers. 

1.  Select  ripe,  well  colored  pimentos  or  sweet  peppers. 
To  peel  them  place  them  in  a  very  hot  oven  for  a  short 
time,  until  the  skins  may  be  easily  slipped  from  the 
pimentos  with  the  ringers.     They  may  also  be  peeled 
by  dipping  them  in  very  hot  cotton  seed  oil  for  a  short 
time. 

2.  Allow  to  cool.     Remove  skins  and  cut  out  stems 
and  seed  cores. 

3.  The  heating  will  have  softened  them.     Pack  well 
in  cans  or  jars.    Fill  with  boiling  hot  water.    Seal  cans. 
Place  rubbers  and  caps  loosely  on  jars. 

4.  Sterilize  cans  40  min.  and  jars  GO  min.  at  212°  F.  in 
a  washboiler  sterilizer.    Pressure  sterilization  and  lemon 
juice  are  not  necessary. 

(28)  Canning  of  Pumpkin  and  Squash. 

1.  Cut  in  half  and  remove  pulp  and  seeds.     Cut  in 
strips  and  cut  off  outer  rind.     Cut  flesh  in  pieces  that 
will  go  into  cans  or  jars  conveniently. 

2.  Pack  into  jars  or  cans.    Add  a  boiling  hot  brine  of 
2  oz.  of  salt  (2  tablespoonfuls),  and  4  fluid  oz.  lemon 
juice  (8  tablespoonfuls),  per  gallon.     Seal  cans;  place 
lids  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely. 

3.  Sterilize  cans  1  hour  and  jars  1^  hours  at  212°  F. 
In  using  pumpkin  canned  in  this  way  it  will  be  advisable 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  177 

to  add  a  little  baking  soda  to  remove  the  acid  taste  after 
can  is  opened  for  use. 

4.  Pressure  Method.     Remove  pulp  and  outer  rind. 
Cook  till  soft.     Pass  through  screen  or  grinder.     Heat 
pulp  almost  to  boiling.     Pack  into  cans  hot  and  seal. 
Sterilize  1  hour  at  10  Ibs.  steam  pressure.     Do  not  use 
jars. 

5.  Three-Day  Method.     Prepare  and  can  as  in  (4)  but 
sterilize  cans  1^  hours  and  jars  2  hours  on  each  of  three 
successive  days. 

(29)  Canning  of  Spinach  and  Other  Greens. 

1.  Greens  for  canning  should  be  fresh.     Trim  as  for 
cooking  for  table  use. 

2.  Place  in  wire  basket  or  cheese  cloth  and  immerse 
in  boiling  water  for  10  min.    Chill  in  cold  water. 

3.  Pack  in  jars  or  cans. 

4.  Fill  with  boiling  hot  brine  of  2  oz.  salt  (2  table- 
spoonfuls)  and  6  oz.  (12  tablespoonfuls)  lemon  juice  per 
gallon  of  water.    Seal  cans.    Place  caps  and  rubbers  on 
jars  loosely. 

5.  Sterilize  cans  in  boiling  water  60  min.  and  jars  80 
min. 

6.  Pressure  Method.    As  for  beets.    (See  Recipe  23,  6.) 

7.  Three-Day   Method.     As   for    beets.     (See  Recipe 
23,  7.) 

8.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    Sterilize  cans  4  hours 
and  jars  4}/2  hours  at  212°  F.  if  lemon  juice  and  vinegar 
are  omitted  from  brine. 

(30)  Canning  of  Tomatoes. 

Tomatoes  for  canning  should  be  smooth  skinned  and 
of  good  color. 

1.  To  peel  the  tomatoes,  place  them  in  a  wire  basket 
or  cheesecloth  and  immerse  in  boiling  water  long  enough 
to  crack  and  loosen  the  skins.    This  will  be  ^  to  1  min. 

2.  Chill  in  cold  water  and  peel.    Cut  out  cores.    The 
juice  from  the  cores  may  be  added  in  canning. 


178     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

3.  Heat  to  boiling  and  pack  hot  in  cans  or  jars.    Seal 
cans.    Place  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely. 

4.  Sterilize  No.  3  cans  in  boiling  water  40  min.  and 
No.  10  cans  75  min.;  jars  60  min.     Tomatoes  canned 
without  the   addition  of  tomato  juice   are  known  as 
"  solid  pack  ";  if  juice  is  added,  "  standard  pack.7' 

5.  Canning  Whole  Tomatoes  for    Use  in  Salads.     Peel 
as  in  "  1."    Do  not  remove,  cores.    Pack  carefully  whole 
in  wide  mouthed  cans  or  jars.    Prepare  tomato  juice  by 
pressing  cooked  tomatoes  through  a  cheesecloth.    Heat 
juice  to  boiling.     Pour  boiling  hot  on  the  tomatoes  in 
the  cans  or  jars.    Seal  cans.    Sterilize  5  min.  in  boiling 
water  counting  time  from  time  the  water  boils. 

6.  Canning  Tomato  Puree.     Tomato  puree  is  the  pulp 
of  the  tomato  minus  skins  and  seeds.     Peel  as  in  "  1." 
Boil  in  pot  till  soft.    Pass  through  fine  screen  to  remove 
seeds.     Heat  to  boiling.     Fill  into  jars  or  cans.     Seal 
cans.    Space  is  saved  if  the  puree  is  boiled  down  to  one- 
half  its  volume  before  canning.    Sterilize  No.  3  cans  or 
smaller  cans  at  212°  for  80  min.  and  jars  1J/2  hours, 
and  No.  10  cans  1 J4  hours.    Puree  is  useful  for  soups,  etc. 
Commercially,  tomato  puree  is  made  in  enormous  quan- 
tities   for   ketchup    manufacture.      A    special    machine 
known  as  the  "  cyclone  "  removes  skins  and  seeds  and 
makes  a  coarse  pulp.     The  pulp  is  passed  through  a 
finisher  to  break  it  up  more  finely  before  boiling  down  and 
canning. 

(31)  Canning  of  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  best  sterilized  without  pressure.  The 
cans  must  be  well  filled  or  oxidation  and  darkening  of 
color  will  result. 

1.  Use  freshly  dug  potatoes. 

2.  Boil  in  water  until  the  skin  will  slip  easily  from  the 
potato,  usually  15  to  20  min.     Peel  while  still  as  hot  as 
possible.    Gloves  may  be  worn  to  protect  the  hands. 

3.  Pack  tightly  into  cans  or  jars  pressing  the  potatoes 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  179 

down  to  make  the  container  as  full  as  possible.  Seal 
cans.  Place  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely.  The  best 
grade  of  rubbers  must  be  used. 

4.  Sterilize  No.  2  and  No.  3  cans  4  hours  in  boiling 
water  and  jars  5  hours.  Pressure  sterilization  results  in 
darkening  and  the  lemon  juice  method  is  not  suitable. 

(32)  Canning  of  Dried  Beans. 

1.  Beans  Boston  Style.     Soak  the  beans  overnight  in 
water.    Discard  the  water.    Place  the  beans  in  a  screen 
basket  or  mosquito  netting  bag  and  steam  in  a  covered 
washboiler  or  steam  pressure  retort  for  1^  hours.     Pre- 
pare a  sauce  as  follows:  Boil  together  2  gals,  water; 
5   oz.    (10   tablespoonfuls)    salt;    1   pint  best  molasses; 
2  Ibs.  sugar;  allow  to  cool  to  about  160°  F.  and  add  ^  Ib. 
of  butter;  1  tablespoon  ground  cinnamon;  %  teaspoon  of 
cayenne  pepper  and  1J/2  gals,  of  tomato  puree  (tomato 
pulp).    Pack  the  hot  steamed  beans  into  cans  filling  cans 
about  1/2  inch  from  top.     Heat  the  sauce  prepared  as 
above  to  boiling  and  fill  the  cans.     Seal.     Sterilize  1J4 
hours  at  15  Ibs.  steam  pressure  or  250°  F.     They  may 
also  be  sterilized  by  heating  to  212°  F.  for  1^  hours  on 
each  of  three  successive  days. 

2.  Beans  with  Pork.     Proce.ed  as  in  "  1  "  but  when 
beans  are  filled  into  cans  add  a  few  strips  of  salt  pork  to 
each  can.    Sterilize  as  in  "  1." 

(33)  Canning  of  Hominy.1 

1.  Preparation.  Dissolve  2  oz.  soda  lye  (2  tablespoon- 
fuls, level),  in  each  gallon  of  water  in  an  agateware  pot. 
Place  white  dry  corn  in  this  and  boil  hard  for  1  hour. 
Place  the  corn  in  a  wire  basket  or  mosquito  netting  bag 
and  allow  cold  water  to  run  through  it  for  5  or  6  hours. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  place  in  a  large  tub  of  water  and 
change  the  water  often  and  stir  frequently  for  6  or  8 
hours.  This  is  to  remove  the  lye.  Place  the  corn  in  a 
hulling  machine  to  remove  the  hulls  and  black  eyes. 
1  From  " National  Canning  Recipes,"  page  26. 


180     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

This  machine  may  be  made  by  running  a  shaft  through 
a  barrel  lengthwise.  Place  the  ends  of  the  shaft  on 
a  horizontal  support  so  that  the  barrel  may  be  re- 
volved. 

A  barrel  churn  may  also  be  used  for  this.  After  hulls 
and  eyes  are  removed,  place  the  hulled  corn  back  in  the 
agateware  kettle  with  water  and  cook  until  tender.  Place 
on  coarse  screen  and  wash  out  remaining  hulls  and  eyes 
with  water. 

2.  Sterilizing.  Fill  into  cans.  Add  a  boiling  hot 
brine  of  2  oz.  (2  tablespoonfuls),  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water.  Cap  and  seal.  Sterilize  cans  45  min.  at  15  Ibs. 
steam  pressure,  250°  F.  or  1J4  hours  on  each  of  three 
successive  days  at  212°  F.  Jars  may  be  used  if  sterilized 
\Yi  hours  on  each  of  three  successive  days  at  212°  F. 

(34)  Canning  of  Egg  Plant. 

1.  Peel  and  cut  in  slices.     Drop  in  boiling  water  for 
10  to  15  min. 

2.  Pack  hot  in  cans  or  jars.    Cover  with  boiling  water. 
Seal  cans.    Place  scalded  caps  and  rubbers  on  jars  with- 
out screwing  them  down. 

3.  Pressure  Sterilization.     Sterilize  cans  60  min.   at 
10  Ibs.  pressure,  240°  F. 

4.  Three- Day  Method.    Sterilize  jars  or  cans  1  hour  on 
each  of  three  successive  days  at  212°F. 

5.  One-Day  Method  at  212°.     Sterilize  at  212°  F.  for 
3}/2  hours  in  jars  or  cans  for  one  cooking  only. 

(35)  Canning  of  Okra. 

1.  Wash  the  okra  in  cold  water.     Parboil  15  min.  in 
boiling  water. 

2.  Cut  off  and  discard  stem  end.     Cut  in  slices  cross- 
wise.   Pack  in  cans  or  jars. 

3.  Fill  cans  or  jars  with  hot  brine,  consisting  of  2  oz. 
(2  tablespoonfuls),  of  salt  and  4  oz.  of  lemon  juice  or 
strong  vinegar  per  gallon  of  water.     Seal  cans.     Leave 
lids  and  rubbers  loose  on  jars. 


FRUIT  CANNING  RECIPES  181 


4.  Sterilize  cans  1  hour  at  212°  F.  and  jars  1^  hours. 
Count  time  after  water  boils. 

5.  Pressure  Sterilization.     Omit  lemon  juice  and  vine- 
gar from  above  brine.    Sterilize  in  cans  30  min.  at  10  Ibs. 
pressure  240°  F. 

6.  Three-  Day  Method.    Omit  lemon  juice  and  vinegar. 
Sterilize  1  hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days  at  212°  F. 

7.  One-Day  Method  at  212°  F.    Omit  lemon  juice  and 
vinegar.     Sterilize  cans  2  hours  and  jars  3J^  hours  at 
212°  F. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
CANNING  MEATS 

Meats  are  very  difficult  to  sterilize  because  of  their 
lack  of  acid  and  because  of  the  presence  of  spore-bearing 
bacteria.  Unless  thoroughly  sterilized,  there  is  danger  of 
ptomaine  and  botulinus  poisoning.  The  following  direc- 
tions give  good  results  if  carefully  followed. 

(36)  Canning  Meats  without  Preliminary  Cooking. 

1.  Cut  the  fresh  meat  in  pieces  to  fit  cans  or  jars. 
Pack  into  jars  or  cans. 

2.  Prepare  a  broth  by  boiling  the  bones  or  scraps  or 
other  meat  in  water.     Season  to  taste  with  salt.     Pour 
this  boiling  hot  into  the  cans  or  jars.    Seal  cans. 

3.  Sterilization   by    Three-Day   Method.      Sterilize    at 
212°  F.  13/2  hours  on  three  successive  days. 

4.  One-Day  Method.    Sterilize  at  212°  F.  for  6  hours  on 
one  day  only.      This  method  is  used   extensively   by 
California    housewives    and    was    first    advocated    by 
Miss  Lillian  D.  Clark  of  the  University  of  California. 

5.  Pressure  Method.    Sterilize  in  cans  30  min.  at  15  Ibs. 
steam  pressure  250°. 

6.  Acidified  Brine  Method.     Prepare  a  brine  of  3  oz. 
salt  per  gallon  or  use  a  meat  broth  and  acidify  the  brine 
or  broth  with  4  oz.  (8  tablespoonfuls),  lemon  juice  or 
strong  vinegar  per  gallon.     Pack  the  meat  into  cans  or 
jars.     Fill  with  boiling  hot  acidified  liquid  and  sterilize 
4  hours  at  212°  F. 

(37)  Canning  of  Cooked  Meats. 

1.  Cook  the  meat  in  any  desired  way  as  for  use  on  the 
table.  For  example,  chicken  and  rabbit  may  be  fried 
after  rolling  the  fresh  meat  in  flour;  or  they  may  be 

182 


CANNING  MEATS  183 

boiled  in  lightly  salted  water  until  almost  done.     Beef 
and  pork  may  be  roasted  or  stewed,  etc.,  before  canning. 

2.  Pack  the  cooked  meat  while  hot  in  cans.    Fill  with 
boiling  hot  gravy,  or  tomato  sauce,  or  broth.    A  gelatin 
broth  made  by  boiling  unflavored  gelatin  in  meat  broth 
or  water  is  often  added.    This  sets  to  a  jelly  in  the  jar  or 
can    after    sterilization.      Knox's    or    other    unflavored 
gelatin  may  be  used.    Two  or  three  ripe  olives  added  to 
each  jar  or  can  will  greatly  improve  the  flavor. 

3.  Sterilize  as  in  Recipe  36. 

4.  Acidified  Brine  Method.     To  the  gravy  or  brown 
liquid  or  broth  from  cooking  add  1  oz.  (2  tablespoonfuls) 
lemon  juice  or  strong  vinegar  per  quart  and  mix  well. 
Pack  meat  in  jars  or  cans.     Add  boiling  hot  liquid  and 
sterilize  4  hours  at  212°  F. 

(38)  Canning  of  Corned  Beef.1 

1.  Prepare  the  beef,  by  the  corning  process  as  de- 
scribed in  Recipe  127. 

2.  Place  the  beef  in  an  ordinary  kettle;  cover  with  cold 
water;  bring  slowly  to  a  boil  for  an  hour. 

3.  Cut  into  pieces  of  proper  size  to  fit  the  openings  of 
the  cans  or  jars.    Pack  and  cover  with  a  hot  liquid  made 
by  adding  gelatin  to  the  liquid  in  which  the  meat  was 
boiled,   flavored   with  laurel   (bay  leaves),   cloves  and 
nutmeg  to  taste. 

4.  Sterilize  by  any  of  the  methods  give  in  Recipe  36. 

(39)  Canning  of  Fresh  Fish. 

1.  Prepare  as  for  cooking  for  the  table.    Cut  the  fresh 
fish  to  fit  cans  or  jars  and  pack  tightly. 

2.  Fill  the  cans  or  jars  with  a  boiling  hot  weak  brine  or 
with  a  highly  spiced  tomato  puree  or  catchup. 

3.  Sterilize  by  any  of  the  methods  given  in  Recipe  36. 

4.  Sardines.    Sardines  are  cooked  in  hot  cottonseed  or 
olive  oil  and  packed  in  oil.    Sterilize  for  one-half  the  time 
given  in  36. 

1  "  National  Canning  Recipes,"  page  55. 


184     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

5.  Salmon.     Salmon  may  be  canned  as  described  in 
(1),  (2),  and  (3)  but  usually  the  fresh  fish  is  packed 
tightly  into  cans  and  no  liquid  is  added.    The  cans  are 
heated  in  steam  for  an  hour  before  sealing.    The  cans  are 
then  sealed  and  sterilized  at  15  Ibs.  pressure  250°  F.  for 
1*4  hours  or  for  5  hours  at  212°  F. 

6.  By  Acidified  Brine.     Pack  the  fresh  fish  into  cans 
rather  loosely.     Prepare  a  brine  of  3  oz.  salt  (3  table- 
spoonfuls),  and  5  oz.  (10  tablespoonfuls)  lemon  juice  per 
gallon.    Heat  to  boiling  and  fill  jars  or  cans.    Sterilize  at 
212°  F.  for  4  hours  and  seal.    Instead  of  brine,  tomato 
puree  may  be  added. 

(40)  Canning  of  Kippered  Fish. 

1.  Soak  the  fresh  fish  in  a  strong  brine  (2  Ibs.  per  gal- 
lon), overnight.     Smoke  with  spent  tan  bark  smoke  or 
smoke  from  hard  wood  as  described  in  Recipe  136  for 
about  8  hours. 

2.  Pack  into  cans  and  fill  with  hot  water.    Sterilize  as 
described  in  Recipe  36. 

Small  fish  such  as  herring,  smelt,  sardines,  etc.,  are 
excellent  prepared  in  this  way. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  JUICES 

The  most  important  step  in  the  preparation  of  fruit 
juices  is  the  sterilization  of  the  juice.  Temperatures 
should  be  used  which  will  sterilize  the  juices  without 
imparting  a  cooked  taste.  The  recipes  include  direc- 
tions for  the  preparation  of  the  fruit  juices  that  have 
been  found  by  experience  to  be  satisfactory  beverages. 
Certain  fruits  such  as  peaches,  apricots,  and  prunes, 
do  not  give  satisfactory  juices  and  are  therefore  omitted. 
(41)  Apple  Juice. 

Apples  for  the  production  of  juice  should  possess  a 
marked  flavor.  Winesap,  Northern  Spy,  Gravenstein, 
Newtown  Pippin,  are  all  good  for  this  purpose.  Use 
clean,  sound  fruit  and  not  wormy  culls.  A  thermometer 
that  may  be  immersed  in  the  juice  or  water  will  be  neces- 
sary. A  dairy  thermometer  reading  to  185°  F.  or  higher 
will  answer  the  purpose.  See  Chap.  VII  for  description 
of  crushers  and  presses. 

1.  Crush  or  grind  the  fruit  and  press  out  the  juice. 
If  the  fruit  is  heated  to  150°  to  160°  F.  (not  above  160°  F.) 
for  a  few  minutes  it  will  press  more  easily.     Heat  the 
juice  to  150°  F.  in  a  pot. 

2.  Strain  or  filter  the  juice  through  a  jelly  bag  or 
other  filtering  device.     It  is  usually  desirable  to  strain 
the  juice  twice. 

3.  Fill  the  juice  into  bottles,  allowing  a  space  of  about 
\}/2  inches  in  the  necks  of  the  bottles  for  expansion  of 
the  juice  during  sterilization.     Crown  finish  bottles  are 
best  if  any  large  amount  of  juice  is  to  be  put  up. 

4.  Cork  the  bottles  with  corks  previously  sterilized 

185 


186     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD.  PRESERVATION 

for  10  min.  in  boiling  water.  Tie  the  corks  down  with  a 
string  to  hold  them  in  the  bottles  during  sterilization. 
If  crown  caps  and  bottles  are  used,  place  the  caps  on  the 
bottles  with  a  crown  bottle  capping  machine.  (See 
Fig.  24.) 

5.  Pasteurization.      Lay  the  bottles  in  a  horizontal 
position  on  the  false  wooden  bottom  of  a  washboiler 
or  large  pot.     Fill  the  boiler  or  pot  with  water.     Heat 
the  water  slowly  until  a  thermometer  held  in  the  water 
registers  175°  F.    Maintain  this  temperature  for  20  min. 
(See  Fig.  25.)     For  larger  scale  pasteurization  a  large 
wooden  vat  with  false  bottom  and  heated  with  steam 
coils  may  be  used.    The  washboiler  or  other  pasteurizer 
may  be  filled  full  of  bottles  so  long  as  the  water  com- 
pletely covers  them. 

6.  Paraffining  the  Corks.    As  soon  as  the  bottles  are 
removed,  dip  the  ends  of  necks  and  corks  in  melted 
paraffin.    Dip  again  when  the  bottles  are  cold.    This  pre- 
vents molding.    Dipping  is  not  necessary  for  Crown  Caps. 

7.  Canning   Apple  Juice.     The  strained   apple  juice 
may  also  be  pasteurized  in  cans.    Enamel  lined  cans  are 
safer  to  use  than  plain  tin  lined  cans  because  of  the 
action  of  the  juice  on  tin.    Fill  the  cans  with  juice.    Seal 
them.    Pasteurize  as  described  above  for  bottles.    Solder 
top  cans  previously  described,  or  sanitary  cans  that  may 
be  sealed  with  a  small  hand  power  capping  machine  may 
be  used. 

(42)  Red  Grape  Juice. 

1.  Varieties  of  Grapes.  Red  grape  juice  should  have 
a  pleasing  and  pronounced  flavor  in  addition  to  a  deep 
red  color  and  tart  taste.  Practically  none  of  the  Euro- 
pean varieties  of  red  grapes  grown  in  the  United  States 
possess  all  of  these  characteristics.  They  are,  however, 
found  in  Eastern  varieties.  They  may  also  be  obtained 
from  European  varieties  if  two  varieties  of  European 
grapes  are  mixed  or  their  juices  blended. 


RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  JUICES  187 

An  excellent  combination  of  European  varieties  is 
made  of  equal  quantities  of  Muscat  and  any  good  va- 
riety of  red  wine  grape.  The  Muscat  furnishes  flavor. 
Petite  Serah,  Zinfandel,  Carignarne  and  Mataro  or  other 
common  variety  of  red  wine  grape  may  be  used  for  color 
and  acid.  Better  varieties  for  this  purpose  are  Barbera 
St.  Macaire,  and  Refosco.  The  Muscat  is  a  large  white 
raisin  and  shipping  grape  of  very  pronounced  flavor. 
It  is  grown  very  extensively  in  California.  The  other 
varieties  are  red  wine  grapes  grown  in  California.  Any 
Eastern  variety  of  good  color  may  be  used  without  the 
addition  of  red  wine  grapes.  Concord  and  Isabella  are 
both  good  varieties. 

2.  Picking.    The  grapes  should  not  be  too  ripe.    If  a 
Balling  sugar  tester  is  available,  test  the  grapes  from 
time  to  time  during  ripening.     Muscat  grapes  should  be 
picked  at  about  22%  sugar  when  tested  with  the  Balling 
saccharometer;  red  grapes  at  18%  to  20%,  that  is,  when 
they  are  still  quite  acid  or  tart. 

3.  Crushing.     Crush  thoroughly.     This  can  be  done 
in  an  agateware  pot  with  a  potato  masher  or  with  the 
hands.    If  Muscats  are  used,  mix  with  an  equal  amount 
of  some  red  wine  grape. 

4.  Heating  to  Extract  Color.    Heat  the  crushed  grapes 
with   a  thermometer  inserted   until   a   temperature   of 
140°  F.  is  reached.    Stir  the  grapes  often.     Remove  the 
heated  grapes  from  the  stove  and  allow  to  stand  in  an 
agateware  or  aluminum  pot  overnight.     On  a  large  scale 
the  grapes  may  be   crushed   in  a   hand   power  grape 
crusher  (see  Fig.  22),  and  heated  in  a  wooden  vat  by 
means  of  a  tin  steam  coil  or  in  a  large  tin  lined  or  alum- 
inum steam  kettle.     Both  methods  are  used  commer- 
cially.    The  juice  may  also  be  heated  after  pressing 
from  the  grapes  and  then  returned  hot  to  the  grapes  to 
remove  the  color. 

5.  Pressing.     Press  the  grapes  after  they  have  stood 


188     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

overnight  as  directed  above.  Small  quantities  may  be 
pressed  through  a  jelly  bag  or  flour  sack.  A  ciderpress 
(see  Fig.  22),  may  be  used  for  larger  quantities. 

6.  Filtering.    As  directed  for  apple  juice,  Recipe  41. 

7.  Bottling   and    Pasteurizing.      As   for   apple   juice. 
Grape  juice  may  also  be  pasteurized  in  cans  to  good  ad- 
vantage. 

(43)  Loganberry,  Blackberry,  and  Raspberry  Juices. 

1.  Use  ripe  well  colored  berries.    Crush  thoroughly. 

2.  Heat  in  an  agateware  or  aluminum  pot  to  150°  to 
160°  F.  with  a  thermometer  inserted. 

3.  Press  hot  through  a  bag  or  press.     Strain  several 
times  until  fairly  clear. 

4.  To  each  gallon  of  loganberry  or  blackberry  juice, 
add  2  Ibs.  of  sugar.     To  each  gallon  of  raspberry  juice, 
add  2  Ibs.  of  sugar  and  1  pt.  of  lemon  juice. 

5.  Bottle,  and  pasteurize  as  for  apple  juice. 

6.  The  juice  is  diluted  with  from  one  to  two  cups  of 
water  to  each  cup  of  juice  before  serving.     Loganberry 
juice  has  become  one  of  the  most  popular  fruit  juice 
beverages  of  the  United  States. 

(44)  Lemon  Juice. 

Lemon  juice  does  not  retain  its  flavor  well  after  pas- 
teurizing. Cull  lemons  and  "  juice  "  lemons  may  often 
be  obtained  from  lemon  orchards  or  packing  houses  very 
cheaply. 

1.  Cut  the  lemons  in  half.    Remove  the  pulp  and  juice 
in  a  lemon  squeezer  or  on  a  glass  lemon  cone.    Strain  out 
coarse  pulp. 

2.  Bottle  and  pasteurize  as  directed  for  apple  juice. 
(Recipe  41.) 

Lemon  juice  develops  a  "  limey  "  or  "  stale  "  flavor 
in  time  but  is  still  good  for  lemonade. 

(45)  Orange  Juice. 

1.  Use  ripe  fruit.  Fruit  at  the  beginning  of  the  season 
will  make  a  bitter  juice. 


RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  JUICES  189 

2.  Peel  the  fruit  to  remove  oil  cells.    Crush  and  press 
out  juice.    Or  cut  the  whole  oranges  in  half  and  remove 
pulp  and  juice  on  an  orange  cone. 

3.  Strain  through  a  cheesecloth.     Do  not  remove  all 
the  pulp  by  straining  because  it  contains  the  flavor. 
Do  not  allow  oil  from  the  skins  to  get  into  the  juice 
because  this  in  time  becomes  stale  in  flavor. 

4.  Bottle  and  pasteurize  as  for  apple  juice.     (See  Re- 
cipe 41.) 

Orange  juice  retains  its  flavor  only  a  short  time,  not 
more  than  two  or  three  months  and  is  not  very  satisfac- 
tory as  a  bottled  juice. 

(46)  Orange-Lemon  Juice. 

1.  Mix  1  pint  of  lemon  juice  with  each  gallon  of  orange 
juice.    Add  2  Ibs.  of  sugar  to  each  gallon. 

2.  Bottle  and  pasteurize  as  directed  for  apple  juice. 
(Recipe  41.)     To  serve  this  juice,  dilute  each  cup  of 
juice  with  1  or  2  cupfuls  of  water. 

This  juice  retains  its  flavor  much  better  than  ordinary 
orange  juice. 

(47)  Grape  Fruit  Juice. 

1.  Cut  the  fruit  in  half  and  remove  pulp  and  juice  on 
a  glass  cone. 

2.  Strain  through  cheesecloth. 

3.  Heat  in  an  agateware  pot  to  175°  F.  and  fill  into 
scalded  bottles,  filling  them  full. 

4.  Cork  and  tie  down  the  corks. 

5.  Place  bottles  in  water  previously  heated  to  175°  F. 
and  keep  at  175°  F.  for  20  min. 

6.  Remove    bottles    and    seal    with    paraffin.      This 
method  removes  the  air  from  the  bottles  and  prevents 
darkening  of   the  juice,   which    would   otherwise    take 
place. 

Grape  fruit  juice  is  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  citrus 
fruit  juices.  A  great  deal  of  this  is  now  bottled  in  Florida 
for  sale. 


190     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(48)  Pomegranate  Juice. 

1.  Choose  well  colored  ripe  fruit.     Cut  fruit  in  half 
and  remove  kernels.    Be  careful  not  to  get  any  of  rind 
or  pulp  mixed  with  the  kernels. 

2.  Crush  the  kernels,  press  out  the  juice  and  heat  to 
150°  F. 

3.  Allow  the  juice  to  stand  overnight.     Strain  until 
fairly  clear. 

4.  Add  1  Ib.  of  sugar  to  each  gallon  of  juice. 

5.  Bottle  and  pasteurize  as  directed  for  apple  juice. 
(See  Recipe  41). 

(49)  Pineapple  Juice. 

1.  Use  well  ripened  fruit.     Remove  butts  and  rinds. 
Crush  the  pulp  and  press  out  the  juice. 

2.  Heat  the  juice  to  150°  to  160°  F.  in  an  agateware 
or  aluminum  pot.    Allow  to  stand  overnight.    Filter. 

3.  Bottle  and  pasteurize  as  directed  for  apple  juice. 

(50)  Clarification  of  Fruit  Juices. 

In  addition  to  filtration,  fruit  juices  may  be  made 
clear  by  the  addition  of  various  substances  which  will 
coagulate  and  settle,  carrying  with  them  to  the  bottom 
of  the  container,  the  material  which  causes  the  cloudi- 
ness. Clay,  casein,  and  the  white  of  egg  are  the  most 
suitable  materials  for  this  purpose.  Clay  and  casein 
are  coagulated  by  the  acid  of  the  fruit  juice.  Egg  white 
must  be  coagulated  by  heating  the  juice. 

1.  Clarification  with  Clay.  Prepare  a  solution  of  good 
grade  of  clay  by  soaking  1  Ib.  of  dry  clay  in  each  gallon  of 
water.  (A  clay  known  as  Spanish  clay  is  considered  best 
for  this  purpose,  it  being  a  medium  grade  of  potters' 
clay.)  The  clay  is  soaked  for  about  10  days  and  then 
worked  with  the  hands  until  it  forms  a  smooth  thin  mud 
with  the  water. 

To  clarify  apple  juice  with  clay,  add  1  pint  of  the 
thoroughly  mixed  clay  to  each  10  pints  of  juice  and 
heat  with  stirring  to  150°  F.  Let  stand  overnight. 


RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  JUICES  191 

The  next  morning  pour  off  the  clear  juice  and  filter  the 
sediment.  The  juice  is  then  bottled  and  pasteurized  as 
directed  for  unclarified  juice.  If  clarification  is  im- 
perfect, use  more  clay. 

For  grape  juice,  use  %  pint  of  the  clay  to  each  10  pints 
of  juice;  other  juices,  1  pint  to  10  of  juice  and  proceed 
as  with  apple  juice.  Occasionally,  the  juice  will  not 
become  clear  with  this  amount  of  clay  and  more  must 
be  added. 

2.  Clarification  with  Casein.     Casein  may  be  bought 
through  a  drug  store.     It  comes  as  a  granular  powder. 
To  dissolve  it,  add  to  each  3  oz.  by  weight  of  the  casein, 
1  tablespoonful  of  sal  soda  and  1  pint  of  water.    Boil  till 
dissolved  and  then  add  7  pints  of  water. 

Casein  is  used  for  grape  juice  only.     To  each  10  gal- 
lons of  juice,  add  ^  gallon  of  the  casein  solution.     Heat 
to  150°  F.;  allow  to  stand  overnight;  pour  off  clear  juice . 
and  filter  the  sediment. 

3.  Clarification  by  Combined   Use  of  Casein  and  Clay. 
This  combination  gives  good  results  with  grape  juice. 
Add  }/2  gallon  of  the  casein  solution  and  Y%  gallon  of 
the  clay  solution  to  each  10  gallons  of  juice  and  pro- 
ceed as  in  "  1." 

4.  Clarification  with   Egg   White.     Mix   the   white   of 
1  egg  with  a  half  pint  of  water.    Add  this  to  each  gallon 
of  grape  juice.     Heat  to  175°  F.  and  proceed  as  above. 
Egg  white  gives  good  results  with  grape  juice  but  is  not 
satisfactory  for  most  other  juices. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SIRUPS 

Sirups  for  table  use  and  for  cooking  purposes  may  be 
made  in  the  kitchen  or  in  a  small  way  on  the  farm  with 
the  materials  found  at  hand  or  constructed  at  small  ex- 
pense. Usually,  these  home  made  sirups  will  not  be  as 
light  colored  as  the  factory  made  products  but  will  be 
of  pleasing  flavor,  if  carefully  prepared.  Grapes  and 
apples  are  especially  well  suited  to  the  manufacture  of 
sirups.  Sorghum  is  also  excellent.  The  general  princi- 
ples of  sirup  manufacture  will  be  found  in  Chapter  VIII. 
(51)  Fruit  Sirups  for  Cooking  Purposes. 

1.  Crush  the  fruit  and  press  out  the  juice.    Apples  and 
berries  may  be  heated  to  boiling  after  crushing  to  facil- 
itate extraction  of  the  juice. 

2.  Heat  the  pressed  juice  to  boiling  and  filter  through 
a  jelly  bag  or  other  form  of  filter  until  clear.     The  juice 
may  also  be  clarified  by  methods  described  in  Recipe  50. 
This  will  give  a  clearer  and  more  attractive  sirup. 

3.  Boil  the  juice  down  rapidly  in  a  shallow  pan.    Long 
boiling  causes  the  sirup  to  be  dark  colored  and  of  poor 
flavor.      The  hot  sirup  should  finally  test  63%  Balling 
or  35°  Baume  or  must  be  boiled  until  it  becomes  of  the 
desired  consistency. 

4.  Pack  the  sirup  boiling  hot  into  scalded  jars  or  bottles 
and  seal  at  once.     Sirup  that  tests  63°  Balling  hot  or 
68°  Balling  cold  will  keep  without  packing  hot  in  scalded 
jars  or  bottles.     The  sugar  test  is  not  necessary  if  the 
sirup  is  sealed  hot. 

Sirups  made  as  above  are  suitable  for  use  in  mince- 
meat etc.,  but  are  somewhat  too  sour  for  table  use. 

192 


SIRUPS  193 

Grapes  and  apples  are  the  most  suitable  fruits  for  this 
purpose. 

(52)  Fruit  Sirups  for  Table  Use. 

1.  Clarify  the  fruit  juice.    To  do  this,  heat  to  boiling 
and  strain  till  clear  or  clarify  according  to  Recipe  50. 

2.  Divide  into  two  lots  representing  J^  and  M  of  the 
juice  respectively. 

3.  To  Y±  of  the  juice  add  2  oz.  (3  tablespoonfuls)  of 
precipitated  chalk  per  gallon.    Heat  to  boiling  and  allow 
to  stand  overnight.    Filter  through  a  jelly  bag  to  remove 
the  chalk.     The  juice  may  also  be  treated  with  baking 
soda  instead  of  chalk.     Add  the  soda  in  small  amounts 
until  there  is  no  longer  any  acid  taste.    Do  not  add  too 
much  soda. 

4.  To  the  filtered  juice  add  the  J4  of  untreated  juice. 
Boil  the  juice  down  to  a  sirup  and  seal  boiling  hot  in 
bottles  or  jars.    This  sirup  is  less  acid  than  that  made  by 
the  preceding  recipe  and  can  be  used  on  griddle  cakes,  etc. 

Precipitated   chalk  may  be   bought  from  any  drug 
store.    Ground  limestone  may  also  be  used.    It  is  harmless. 

(53)  Fruit  Sirups  by  Sun  Evaporation.    (See  Chap.  VIII, 
par.  35.) 

1.  Crush  the  fruit,  press  out  the  juice  and  strain  or 
filter  it  until  clear. 

2.  Place  the  juice  in  a  shallow  pan  or  make  a  shallow 
wooden  water-tight  trough.    Place  whole  apparatus  in  a 
sunny  place.    Hang  from  a  clothesline  or  other  support 
above  the  container  several  strips  of  cheesecloth.     (See 
Fig.  29  for  diagram  of  such  an  arrangement.)     Dip  the 
cloths  in  the  juice  and  hang  them  above  the  pan  or 
trough.    In  a  few  minutes  the  juice  will  dry  to  a  sirup  on 
the  cloth.     Dip  them  in  the  juice;  wring  out  the  sirup 
into  the  juice;  dip  again  and  hang  up  to  dry.    Repeat  this 
until  the  sirup  reaches  65%  to  68%  Balling  or  35%  to 
37%  Baume.      (See  Chap.  II,  par.  11,  for  use  of  these 
testers.)    Store  in  bottles  or  jars. 


194     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

This  sirup  will  have  a  great  deal  of  the  fresh  fruit 
flavor  and  may  be  diluted  as  a  beverage  or  may  be  used 
in  cooking.  Sirups  for  table  use  may  be  made  in  a 
similar  way  by  modifying  Recipe  52  accordingly. 

(54)  Fruit    Sirups    made    by   the    Addition    of    Sugar. 
Highly  flavored  and  tart  juices  may  often  be  sweetened 

with  sugar  to  give  heavy  sirups  suitable  for  use  in  soda 
fountains  or  as -bases  for  home  made  beverages. 

1.  Lemon,  Orange  and  Grape  Fruit  Sirups.     Grate  off 
the  oil  cells  from  %  doz.  fruits.     To  the  gratings  add 
2%  Ibs.  of  sugar  and  1  pint  of  the  juice  of  the  fruit  used. 
Warm  until  sugar  dissolves.     Stir  and  allow  to  stand 
with  occasional  stirring  for  three  or  four  days.     Press 
through  a  cloth  to  remove  gratings. 

2.  Pomegranate,  red  grape  juice,  strawberry,  logan- 
berry, raspberry,  and  blackberry  juices  may  be  made  by 
adding  1%  Ibs.  sugar  to  each  pint  of  juice.    This  sirup 
will  keep  without  sterilization. 

(55)  a.  Sorghum  Sirup.     Home  Recipe. 

1.  Crush   the  green  sugar  sorghum   canes.     A  food 
chopper  may  be  used  for  small  scale  work;  for  larger 
scale  work  a  cane  mill  will  be  needed.    The  ground  cane 
may  be  boiled  with  a  small  amount  of  water  and  pressed 
a  second  time. 

2.  Heat  the  juice  to  boiling  and  strain  until  clear. 

3.  Boil  down  until  the  sirup  will  test  63%  hot  or  68% 
Balling  cold,  or  until  of  desired  consistency.    Seal  hot  in 
scalded  jars,  bottles,  or  cans. 

(55)  b.  Manufacture  of  Sorghum  on  Small  Commercial 

Scale. 

1.  Equipment.  Small  horse  power  mill  (see  Fig.); 
galvanized  iron  or  copper  evaporating  pan  8  to  10  ft. 
long  (see  Fig.);  portable  furnace  for  pan;  settling  pan  at 
crusher  about  6  to  8  ft.  long  to  permit  settling  of  juice 
(this  pan  may  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  to  receive 
juice  at  upper  end  of  pan  and  to  allow  settled  juice  to 


FIG.  58.  Horse  Power  Sorghum  or  Cane  Mill.     (Courtesy  Blymer 
Iron  Works.) 


196     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


flow  out  at  lower  end  into  a  settling  tank) ;  settling  tank 
or  barrel  of  50  gals,  capacity  for  fresh  juice;  two  open 
50  gal.  barrels;  skimmer  for  use  during  boiling  of  sirup; 
10  or  15  gal.  open  barrels  or  tubs  with  spigot,  to  be  placed 
above  and  at  one  end  of  evaporating  pan  to  supply 
juice  to  pan;  several  buckets  and  dippers. 

2.   Varieties  of  Sorghum.     Honey    Sorghum,    Orange 
Sorghum,   Red  Amber  Sorghum,   and   Gooseneck  Sor- 


FIG.  59.  Evaporating  Pan  for  Sorghum  and  Other  Sirups.     (Cour- 
tesy Blymer  Iron  Works.) 

ghum  are  all  good  varieties.  Plant  quick  maturing 
varieties  in  Eastern  states  and  late  maturing  varieties  in 
California. 

3.  Harvesting.    Strip  off  leaves  from  canes  when  seed 
is  almost  ripe;  cut  canes  at  6  to  8  inches  from  ground. 
Cut  off  seed  heads  and  haul  stripped  cane  to  the  mill  at 
once.     Leaves  and  seed  heads  spoil  the  flavor  of  sirup 
and  make  it  hard  to  clear,  therefore,  they  should  be  used 
for  forage  only  and  not  for  sirup. 

4.  Press  juice  from  stripped  cane  by  running  it  through 
a  sorghum  mill  (see  Fig.).    The  mill  is  set  on  supports  so 
that  bottom  of  rollers  is  about  40  inches  from  the  ground 
and  is  operated  by  a  sweep  fastened  to  top  of  rollers  and 


SIRUPS  197 

drawn  by  one  or  two  horses.    Power  mills  may  be  used  for 
larger  factories. 

5.  Allow  juice  from  mill  to  flow  continuously  through 
settling  pan  and  from  settling  pan  into  a  50  gal.  settling 
tank. 

6.  Heat  to  boiling  and  allow  to  settle  4  or  5  hours  in 
settling  tank.     This  can  be  done  by  running  the  juice 
through  the  pan  at  such  a  rate  that  it  will  be  heated  to 
boiling  but  not  concentrated  to  a  sirup.    Skim  off  floating 
material  and  draw  settled  juice  off  from  sediment.    The 
settled  juice  is  used  for  sirup;  the  sediment  may  be  used 
for  stock  feed  or  strained  and  used  for  sirup. 

7.  Fill  the  evaporating  pan  with  the  juice  and  boil 
down  to  a  sirup.    Allow  sirup  to  flow  from  the  pan  and 
the  juice  to  flow  into  the  pan  at  such  a  rate  that  the  sirup 
tests  when  hot,  36°  to  40°  Baume  or  65°  to  73°  Balling  or 
Brix.    A  very  hot  fire  is  essential;  quick  burning  wood  is 
best;  crude  oil  can  be  used  if  a  special  burner  is  installed. 

8.  Allow  sirup  to  settle  4  or  5  hours  in  a  shallow  vessel. 
Draw  it  off  and  fill  into  sirup  cans  or  kegs. 

Sorghum  sirup  outfits  may  be  obtained  from  dealers 
in  farm  machinery.  (See  par.  12,  and  par.  46,  for  descrip- 
tion of  sugar  and  sirup  testers.)  (56)  Sugar  Beet  Sirup. 

1.  Wash  and  cut  in  thin  slices.    The  thinner  the  slices 
the  better. 

2.  Place  slices  in  a  pot  and  barely  cover  with  water. 
Bring  to  the  simmering  point  or  to  175°  to  180°  F.  and 
keep  at  this  temperature  about  45  min.     Strain  off  the 
hot  sugary  liquid  through  a  cheesecloth.    It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  press  the  beets.    A  second  more  dilute  juice  can 
be  obtained  by  heating  the  slices  with  fresh  water. 

3.  Strain  the  juice  till  fairly  clear.    Boil  down  rapidly 
to  a  heavy  sirup  and  skim  off  material  that  comes  to  the 
surface.    Seal  hot  in  scalded  jars,  bottles,  or  cans.    This 
sirup  will  be  dark  colored  but  is  suitable  for  some  forms 
of  cooking  and  for  table  use. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES 

The  recipes  given  in  this  chapter  are  designed  primarily 
for  the  making  of  jellies  and  marmalades  in  the  home. 
Especial  attention  has  been  given  to  the  jelly  tests. 
These  are  of  great  value  in  determining  when  a  jelly 
or  marmalade  has  been  boiled  long  enough;  in  deter- 
mining whether  a  given  fruit  is  suitable  for  jelly  making; 
and  in  determining  how  to  correct  a  fruit  that  has  been 
proven  by  test  to  be  unsuitable. 
(57)  Jellies. 

1.  Fruits  for  Jelly.    Most  apples,  crab  apples,  logan- 
berries, currants,  cranberries,  sour  blackberries,  lemons, 
oranges  and  lemons  mixed,  grape  fruit,  guava  and  lemon 
mixed,  sour  plums,  and  Eastern  varieties  of  grapes  give 
good  jellies.     .Other  fruits  must  be  mixed  with  fruits 
rich  in  pectin  or  their  juices  must  be  mixed  before  a  good 
jelly  may  be  obtained.     Oranges  must  be  thoroughly  ripe, 
or  the  jelly  will  be  bitter. 

2.  Crush  or  slice  the  fruit.    Add  water  to  cover  unless 
the  fruit  is  very  juicy;  for  example,  loganberries  and 
currants  require  no  water.    Currants,  berries,  and  other 
soft  fruits  are  heated  to  boiling  for  not  longer  than 
5  min. ;  boil  apples  about  20  min.  and  citrus  fruits  about 
1  hour.    If  the  water  boils  off  too  much,  add  more  during 
the  boiling  process. 

3.  Pour  the  hot  fruit  and  juice  into  a  jelly  bag  and 
drain  off  the  hot  juice.    Press  the  residual  pulp  and  keep 
the  pressed  juice  separate  from  the  strained  juice.    Strain 
the  juice  till  clear. 

4.  Pectin  Test.    To  test  whether  the  juice  has  sufficient 

198 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  199 

pectin  to  make  a  jelly,  first  obtain  a  little  grain  alcohol 
from  the  druggist.  Place  1  teaspoonful  of  alcohol  and 
1  of  juice  in  a  glass  and  mix.  If  after  4  or  5  min.  stand- 
ing a  heavy  gelatinous  precipitate  forms,  the  juice  has 
sufficient  pectin;  if  the  precipitate  is  small,  a  fruit  juice 
richer  in  pectin  must  be  added  or  less  sugar  than  usual 
must  be  added.  The  pectin  test  is  useful  but  not  neces- 
sary. 

5.  Acid  Test.     Compare  the  taste  of  the  juice  with  a 
dilute  lemonade  made  of  8  teaspoonfuls  of  water  and 
1  of  lemon  juice  and  J^  teaspoonful  of  sugar.     If  the 
juice  is  very  much  less  tart  in  taste  than  the  lemon- 
ade, an  acid  juice  must  be  added  to  the  fruit  juice  to 
make  up  the  deficiency.     This  test  is  useful  but  not 
necessary. 

6.  Addition  of  Sugar.     If  the  juice  is  rich  in  pectin 
and  acid,  add  1  cup  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  juice;  if 
only  moderately  rich  in  these  constituents,   add   only 
%  cup  of  sugar  to  1  of  juice;  if  poor  in  pectin,  add  only 
3/2  cup  of  sugar  to  1  of  juice. 

7.  Boiling.     Boil  in  small  lots  on  a  rapid  fire.     Skim 
if  necessary.     The  skimmings  are  good  food;   do  not 
waste  them. 

8.  Jelly  Tests.    Boil  until  the  jelly  "  sheets  "  in  large 
pieces  from  a  spoon.    A  better  test  is  to  insert  a  candy 
thermometer;   or  a   chemical   thermometer  reading   to 
250°  F.    The  jelly  is  done  when  it  boils  at  220°  F. 

Another  test  is  the  appearance  of  the  bubbles  during 
boiling.  The  jelly  is  done  when  the  bubbles  become 
very  large  and  the  jelly  "  tries  to  jump  out  of  the  pot 
into  the  glass." 

Another  very  good  test  is  the  hydrometer  test.  Pour 
the  hot  jelly  into  a  cylinder.  Insert  a  Baume  or  Balling 
hydrometer.  The  jelly  is  done  when  it  tests  30°  Baume 
or  57°  Balling.  For  very  hot  climates  boil  down  to  32° 
Baume  or  60°  Balling. 


200     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

9.  Pour  into  dry  glasses  and  allow  to  cool. 

10.  Paraffining.      Add  hot  paraffin  to  the  cold  jelly 
to  cover  it.    If  a  thin  knife  blade  is  run  around  the  edges 
of  the  jelly  after  adding  the  paraffin,  it  will  run  down 
the  sides  of  the  glass  and  make  a  seal  that  will  not  be 
so  apt  to  "  leak  "  or  "  sweat. " 

11.  Some  Causes  of  Failure.    They  are  use  of  fruit  too 
low  in  pectin  or  acid  and  the  use  of  too  much  sugar.    Very 
few  cases  will  be  found  where  more  than  1  cup  of  sugar 
to  1  of  juice  can  be  used.     The  poorer  the  fruit  is  for 
jelly  making  the  less  sugar  can  be  used. 

(58)  Jelly  Stocks. 

Fruit  juices  for  jelly  making  can  be  sterilized  and  used 
later  at  any  time  for  jelly. 

1.  Prepare  the  juice  for  jelly  making  as  in  Recipe  57 
but  do  not  add  sugar. 

2.  Heat  to  boiling  and  pour  into  scalded  jars  or  bottles. 
Seal  at  once  with  scalded  corks  or  caps.    Invert  to  cool 
so  that  the  hot  juice  will  sterilize  corks  and  jars.    Seal 
corks  by  dipping  ends  of  bottles  in  melted  paraffin. 

3.  The  juice  may  also  be  put  up  as  follows:  Bottle 
and  seal  with  sterilized  corks.     Pasteurize  as  described 
for  apple  juice  in  Recipe  41  at  175°  F.  for  20  min. 

4.  To  make  jelly  from  this  jelly  stock,  open  at  any 
time  and  proceed  as  with  fresh  juice  under  Recipe  57. 

(59)  Jellies  without  Cooking. 

Currants,  loganberries,  and  cranberries  will  make  jelly 
without  cooking  because  they  are  exceedingly  rich  in 
pectin  and  acid. 

1.  Crush   the   fruit   very   thoroughly    and    press    as 
completely  as  possible.     Do  not  heat  the  fruit  or  juice. 
Strain  the  juice. 

2.  Add  13/2  cups  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  juice  and 
mix  until  sugar  dissolves.    Pour  into  glasses  (preferably 
shallow  ones),  and  leave  in  the  sun.     The  juice  will  set 
to  a  jelly  in  a  few  days.    The  sun  evaporates  the  excess 


JELLIES  AND  MARMALADES  201 

moisture.    A  bright  sun  is  necessary.    After  jelly  has  set, 
seal  with  paraffin. 

(60)  Orange  Marmalade. 

1.  Use  12  oranges' to  3  lemons.    Cut  4  of  the  oranges 
in  very  thin  slices.     Cut  the  remaining  8  oranges  and 
3  lemons  into  medium  slices. 

2.  To  the  8  oranges  and  3  lemons  add  water  to  cover. 
Boil  slowly  for  1  hour.    Add  water  occasionally  to  replace 
that  boiling  off.    Press  out  the  juice  and  strain  till  clear. 

3.  To  the  thinly  sliced  4  oranges  add  water  to  cover 
and  boil  slowly  till  tender  (%  to  1  hour).    Drain  off  the 
juice.     Do  not  press.     The  slices  must  be  kept  whole. 
Strain  the  juice  and  add  to  that  from  the  first  8  oranges. 

4.  Mix  the  thin  slices  with  whole  lot  of  juice. 

5.  Add  1  cup  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  mixed  juice  and 
slices.    Boil  slowly  until  a  good  jelly  test  is  obtained  or 
until  the  marmalade  boils  at  220°  F.  or  until  the  liquid  tests 
32°  Baume  or  60°  Balling. 

6.  Allow  to  stand  in  the  pot  about  5  min.  or  until  the 
liquid  cools  to  about  160°  F.  before  pouring  into  glasses. 
This  allows  the  slices  to  absorb  the  sirup  and  prevents 
their  coming  to  the  surface.     Pour  into  glasses.     Allow 
to  cool  and  seal  with  hot  paraffin. 

(61)  Grape  Fruit  and  Other  Marmalades. 

1.  Grape  Fruit  Marmalade.     Proceed  as  in  Recipe  60 
but  use  grape  fruit  instead  of  oranges.     Use  the  same 
amount  of  lemon  as  in  Recipe  60. 

2.  Apricot  and  Peach  Marmalade.     Prepare  an  apple 
juice  rich  in  pectin  by  boiling  apples  and  pressing  as  for 
jelly.    To  each  cup  of  this  juice  add  %  cup  of  sugar  and 
about  %  cup  of  finely  sliced  peaches  or  apricots.     Boil 
down  until  a  good  jelly  test  is  obtained.     Pour  boiling 
hot  into  glasses  and  seal. 

Other  marmaldes  may  be  made  in  a  similar  way. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
FRUIT  JAMS,  BUTTERS,  AND  PASTES 

These  three  products  offer  convenient  ways  of  using 
many  soft  fruits  unsuitable  for  canning,  e.  g.,  overripe 
berries,  apricots,  plums,  peaches,  and  surplus  apples. 
Butters  are  often  made  with  the  use  of  sirups  instead  of 
sugar;  fruit  sirups  made  as  directed  in  Chapter  XXIII 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  in  this  way  the  sugar 
bill  may  be  cut  materially. 

(62)  Fruit  Jams. 

1.  Weigh  the  fruit  after  peeling,  pitting,  etc.    Add  a 
little  water  and  cook  till  soft.     Mash  with  a  potato 
masher  or  "spoon  or  pass  through  a  colander.     If  the 
fruit  is  very  soft,  boiling  is  unnecessary  before  adding 
sugar 

2.  Add  1  Ib.  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  fruit.     Boil 
about  5  min. 

3.  Pack  boiling  hot  into  scalded  jars  or  cans  and  seal. 

4.  Fruits  for  Jams.    Apricots,  peaches,  figs,  tomatoes, 
blackberries,  loganberries,  raspberries,  strawberries,  and 
loquats  are  especially  good  for  jams. 

(63)  Fruit  Butters  with  the  Addition  of  Sugar. 

Fruit  butters  are  made  both  with  and  without  sugar 
addition  They  are  usually  heavily  spiced. 

1.  Boil  the  peeled  fruit  in  its  own  juice  (or  add  a  little 
apple  juice  or  grape  juice),  until  it  is  soft  and  of  a  mushy 
consistency. 

2.  Pass  through  a  screen  to  give  a  fine  grained  pulp. 
To  each  pound  of  pulp  add  %  Ib.  of  sugar.     To  each 
10  Ibs.  of  pulp  add  3  teaspoonfuls  ground  cinnamon  and 
2  teaspoonfuls  ground  cloves. 

202 


FRUIT  JAMS,  BUTTERS,  AND  PASTES         203 

3.  Boil  slowly  to  a  thick  "  butter  "  that  can  be  used 
for  spreading  on  bread.  Pack  boiling  hot  into  jars  and 
seal.  Apples  and  peaches  are  the  fruits  most  commonly 
used  for  fruit  butters.  Apricots  are  also  good  for  this 
purpose. 

(64)  Fruit  Butters  without  the  Use  of  Sugar. 

1.  Peel  and  pit  the  fruit.     Add  enough  juice  to  pre- 
vent scorching.     Cook  till  soft.     Pass  through  a  fine 
screen. 

2.  To  the  pulp  add  3  qts.  of  apple  or  grape  juice  per 
quart  of  pulp  and  to  each  4  qts.  of  the  mixture  2  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  ground  cinnamon  and  1  of  ground  cloves. 
If  apple  or  grape  sirup  prepared  as  directed  in  the  recipe 
for  sirup  for  cooking  purposes  is  used,  add   1   qt.  of 
sirup  to  1  qt.  of  pulp  instead  of  using  the  juice  as  noted 
above. 

3.  Boil  down  to  a  thick  butter.     Seal  boiling  hot  in 
jars  or  cans.     This  butter  will  be  very  tart  and  will  be 
suitable  for  a  relish. 

(65)  Fruit  Pastes  or  Fruit  Bars. 

1.  Cook  the  fruit  until  tender.     Pass  through  a  fine 
screen  or  sieve.    Berries,  apricots,  figs,  peaches,  apples, 
and  quinces  may  be  used. 

2.  To  the  fine  pulp  thus  obtained,  add  1  cup  of  sugar 
per  cup  of  pulp  or  add  ^  cup  of  sugar  and  Y%  cup  of 
fruit  sirup  per  cup  of  pulp. 

3.  Cook  down  over  a  slow  fire  to  a  thick  butter  or 
jam.    By  carrying  on  the  last  part  of  the  concentration 
in  a   double  boiler  scorching  will  be  avoided.     Cook 
down  as  far  as  possible  without  scorching. 

4.  Pour  or  spread  in  a  broad  shallow  baking  pan  or 
on  a  glass  or  marble  slab  to  the  depth  of  about  J^  inch. 
The  pan  or  slab  must  be  greased  with  salad  oil  or  butter 
to  prevent  the  paste  sticking  to  it. 

5.  Allow  the  material  to  stand  in  the  breeze  for  3  or 
.4  days  to  further  dry  out.     Then  cut  in  cubes  and  roll 


204     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

in  powdered  sugar.  Allow  to  stand  in  a  draught  or 
breeze  a  few  days  longer.  Then  pack  in  candy  boxes. 

6.  Grated  nuts  or  citron  peel  may  be  added  while  the 
pulp  is  cooking  and  just  before  it  is  finally  taken  from 
the  fire. 

Confections  of  this  kind  may  be  used  as  candies  or  as 
garnishings  for  various  dishes.  Various  flavors  such  as 
vanilla  or  lemon  may  be  added  to  the  pastes. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
RECIPES  FOR  PRESERVES 

Practically  all  fruits  may  be  made  into  preserves,  but 
some  are  better  suited  to  the  purpose  than  others.  These 
have  been  emphasized  in  the  recipes  in  this  chapter. 

(66)  Fig  Preserves. 

1.  Choose  figs  preferably  of  some  white  variety  and 
not  overripe.     Puncture  them  with  a  silver  fork  thor- 
oughly so  that  sirup  will  penetrate  easily. 

2.  Place  figs  in  a  kettle.     Add  1  Ib.  of  sugar  to  each 
pound  of  figs  and  2  pints  of  water  to  each  pound  of  figs. 

3.  Cook  down  slowly  until  the  figs  have  become  a 
heavy  preserve.     Pack  boiling  hot  in  scalded  jars  and 
seal. 

(67)  Peach,  Pear,  Quince,  and  Other  Fruit  Preserves. 

1.  Peel  and  prepare  as  for  canning.    Cut  pears  in  half 
and  quinces  in  quarters. 

2.  Add  1  Ib.  of  sugar  and  2  pints  of  water  to  each  pint 
of  fruit. 

3.  Cook  down  to  a  heavy  preserve;  pour  into  jars  and 
seal  hot. 

(68)  Strawberry  Preserves. 

1.  Weigh  the  berries  and  add  1  Ib.  of  sugar  to  each 
pound  of  berries.    A  little  cochineal  may  also  be  added  to 
color  the  berries  because  they  tend  to  fade  after  cooking. 

2.  Heat  quickly  to  a  boil  and  boil  about  2  min.,  not 
longer. 

3.  Pour  into  a  shallow  tray  or  baking  pan  and  set  in 
the  sun  until  the  liquid  evaporates  to  a  thick  sirup  and 
the  berries  have  become  plump.    It  will  usually  be  neces- 
sary to  cover  the  pan  with  a  cheesecloth  during  the  ex-  * 

205 


206     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

posure  to  the  sun.  About  a  week's  time  will  usually  be 
necessary  for  the  sirup  to  evaporate. 

When  they  have  reached  the  desired  point,  pack  in 
jars  or  glasses  and  seal  with  paraffin. 

Strawberries  preserved  in  this  way  will  be  much  more 
attractive  in  texture,  color  and  flavor  than  those  prepared 
in  the  usual  household  way. 

(69)  Watermelon  Preserves. 

1.  The  white  portion  of  the  melon  between  the  colored 
flesh  and  rind  is  best  for  melon  preserves.    Trim  off  the 
rind  and  colored  flesh  and  cut  into  cubes  of  desired  size. 

2.  Weigh  carefully.     Drop  in  boiling  water  and  boil 
about  5  to  10  min.    Remove  and  drain. 

3.  Add  1  Ib.  of  sugar,  Y2  pint  of  water  and  the  juice  of 
}/2  a  lemon  to  each  pound  of  melon.    Boil  down  to  a  heavy 
preserve. 

(70)  Tomato  Preserves. 

1.  Use  a  very  small  variety  of  tomato;  there  are  many 
varieties  that  produce  tomatoes  about  the  size  of  prunes. 

2.  To  each  4  Ibs.  of  tomatoes,  add  4  Ibs.  of  sugar, 
l/^  Qts.  of  water,  }/%  teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger  and 
1   teaspoonful  of  ground   cinnamon.     Boil  down  to  a 
heavy  preserve  and  seal  hot. 

(71)  Preserved  Kumquats. 

1.  The  kumquat  is  a  small  citrus  fruit  of  oblong  shape 
and  of  the  size  of  a  small  prune.     Slit  the  kumquats 
lengthwise  for  about  2/3  the  length  of  the  fruit  in  three 
places.    Boil  in  water  till  tender.    With  a  knife  blade  or 
fork  remove  the  seeds. 

2.  For  each  pound  of  fruit  boil  together  1  Ib.  of  sugar 
and  1  pint  of  water  for  5  min.    Add  the  kumquats  and 
cook  down  until  transparent. 

3.  Place  the  fruit  carefully  in  a  shallow  pan  and  cover 
with  the  sirup.    Allow  to  stand  overnight  to  plump. 

4.  Pack  in  jars.     Place  in  a  washboiler  sterilizer  and 
sterilize  10  min.  at  212°  F. 


RECIPES  FOR  PRESERVES  207 

(72)  Preserves  Made  Without  Cooking. 

1.  Berries  and  currants  may  be  prepared  in  this  way. 
Stem  the  berries. 

2.  Weigh  the  berries  and  allow  1  Ib.  of  sugar  for  each 
pound  of  berries.     Place  the  berries  in  a  shallow  pan. 

3.  To  each  pound  of  sugar  add  %  pint  of  berry  juice. 
Boil  the  juice  and  sugar  together  and  pour  it  boiling  hot 
over  the  berries. 

4.  Place  the  pan  in  the  sun  and  leave  until  the  fruit 
has  taken  up  enough  sirup  to  become  plump  and  the 
sirup  has  become  very  thick. 

5.  Pack  in  glasses  and  seal  with  hot  paraffin. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
RECIPES  FOR  CANDIED  FRUITS 

If  large  amounts  of  fruit  are  to  be  candied,  Recipe  73 
should  be  used,  because  it  may  be  accurately  controlled 
by  the  use  of  a  sirup  hydrometer;  if  only  a  small  amount 
is  to  be  made,  then  Recipe  74  will  be  found  suitable,  as  no 
sirup  hydrometer  is  needed  when  it  is  followed.  Success 
in  candying  of  fruit  depends  largely  upon  slow  increase 
in  the  sugar  content  of  the  sirups  used  in  candying,  and 
in  care  in  preventing  fermentation  during  the  candying 
process. 
(73)  Candied  Fruits  with  Use  of  Sugar  Tester. 

1.  Preparation  of  Fruit  for  Cooking.    Puncture  cherries, 
figs,  kumquats,  loquats,  crabapples  and  apricots,  through 
and  through  in  several  places  with  a  silver  fork;  peel 
pears  and  peaches;  core  or  pit  and  cut  in  half.     Cut 
pineapple  in  rings  as  for  canning  or  use  the  canned 
product.    Fruit  for  candying  should  be  firm  ripe  but  not 
soft.     Canned  fruits  may  be  used  instead  of  the  fresh 
fruit. 

2.  If  fresh  fruit  is  used,  cook  carefully  in  water  until 
tender.     Avoid  breaking  the  fruit.     Place  the  cooked 
fruit  in  a  pan  or  stoneware  crock  or  other  convenient 
vessel. 

3.  Prepare  a  sirup  of  glucose  or  Karo  Korn  sirup  and 
water  using  1  cup  of  the  glucose  or  Karo  to  2  cups  of 
water.     Heat  this  sirup  to  boiling  and  cover  the  fruit 
with  it.    Allow  fruit  and  sirup  to  stand  24  hours.    If  the 
fruit  floats,  place  a  wooden  float  or  a  tin  pot  cover  upon 
it  to  keep  it  submerged. 

4.  After  24  hours  pour  off  the  sirup  and  test  it  with  a 

208 


RECIPES  FOR  CANDIED  FRUITS  209 

Balling  or  a  Baume  hydrometer  or  sugar  tester.  This  is 
done  by  pouring  the  sirup  into  a  cylinder  or  tall  jar  and 
inserting  the  hydrometer.  Read  the  degree  at  the  surface 
of  the  liquid.  See  Fig.  32.  Add  sugar  to  increase  the 
sirup  to  35°  Balling  or  to  20°  Baume.  This  can  be  done 
by  trial.  Heat  the  sirup  to  boiling  and  pour  it  back  on 
the  fruit. 

5.  After  24  hours  pour  off  the  sirup  and  add  sugar  to 
increase  the  sirup  to  35°  Balling  or  23°  Baume.    Pour  it 
back  boiling  hot  on  the  fruit. 

6.  At  24  hours  intervals  repeat  the  above  process 
adding  sugar  to  increase  the  sirup  to  40,  45,  50,  55,  60, 
65,  and  70°  Balling,  respectively,  or  to  25,  27,  29,  31,  33, 
35,   and  37°  Baume.     The  final  sirup  should  be  70° 
Balling  or  37°  Baume.    Allow  the  fruit  to  stand  in  this 
heavy  sirup  for  3  or  4  days. 

7.  Then  remove  the  fruit.    Place  it  on  a  coarse  screen 
and  allow  it  to  dry  about  a  week  in  a  breeze  or  draught 
in  the  house. 

8.  Pack  the  candied  fruit  in  pasteboard  or  wicker  boxes. 
Do  not  use  closed  jars  because  the  fruit  will  mold  in  sealed 
containers.    Open  jars  may  be  used. 

(74)  Candying  Fruits  without  the  Use  of  a  Sugar  Tester. 

1.  Proceed  exactly  as  in  the  preceding  recipe  under 
(1)  and  (2). 

2.  Prepare  a  sirup  of  Karo  Korn  sirup  or  glucose, 
1  cup  and  water  2  cups.    Heat  this  to  boiling  and  pour  it 
on  the  prepared  fruit.    Leave  24  hours. 

3.  After  24  hours  pour  off  the  sirup  and  to  each  4  cups 
add  J/2  cup  of  sugar.    Heat  to  boiling  and  pour  back  on 
the  fruit. 

4.  At  intervals  of  24  hours  repeat  this  process  adding 
J/2  cup  of  sugar  to  each  4  cups  of  sirup  each  time  until  the 
sirup  becomes  very  thick  and  of  about  the  consistency  of 
thick  honey.     Leave  the  fruit  in  this  sirup  for  about  1 
week. 


210     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

5.  Remove  the  fruit  and  drain  it.    Place  it  on  a  coarse 
wire  screen  and  allow  to  dry  for  about  1  week  in  a  room 
where  a  draught  or  breeze  will  strike  it. 

6.  Pack  in  pasteboard  or  wicker  boxes  or  open  jars. 
Do  not  use  sealed  containers. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  FRUITS 

The  following  fruit  drying  recipes  cover  both  evapora- 
tion by  artificial  heat  and  by  solar  heat.  The  latter 
method  gives  satisfactory  results  only  in  climates  that 
are  free  from  frequent  summer  rains.  The  general  prin- 
ciples of  fruit  drying  will  be  found  discussed  in  Chap.  XII. 
This  chapter  should  be  read  in  connection  with  the 
recipes. 
(75)  Sun  Drying  Apricots,  Pears,  Peaches,  and  Apples. 

1.  Apricots,  peaches,  and  apples  are  allowed  to  ripen 
on  the  trees.    Pears  are  picked  when  they  are  full  size  but 
still  hard  and  are  allowed  to  ripen  in  lug  boxes  or  on  piles 
of  straw.    Fruit  for  drying  must  be  ripe  but  not  so  soft 
that  it  will  melt  down  on  the  drying  trays. 

2.  Cut  apricots  and  peaches  in  half  and  remove  pits. 
Peaches  may  be  lye  or  hand  peeled  (see  Recipe  2),  but 
this  is  not  necessary.     Cut  pears  in  half;  do  not  peel. 
Peel,  core,  and  cut  apples  in  rings  about  J4  incri  thick  (see 
apple  peeler,  Figs.  4  and  58).     Place  the  fruit  on  trays. 
These  are  made  of  shakes  or  thin  lumber  and  are  2  x  3  ft., 
6  x  3  ft.,  or  8  x  3  ft.  usually.    If  trays  are  not  available  use 
paper  or  cloth  or  wire  screen  or  any  flat  surface  exposed  to 
the  sun. 

3.  Sulphuring.    Fig.  39  illustrates  a  sulphur  box.    Any 
closed  space  in  which  the  trays  of  fruit  may  be  stacked 
and  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  may  be 
used.     An  old  pan  may  be  used  to  hold  the  sulphur. 
Place  the  trays  of  fruit  in  the  sulphuring  house.     Place 
enough  sulphur  in  a  pan  to  burn  for  the  required  length 
of  time  (see  time  given  below),  5  Ibs.  per  ton  will  be 

211 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  FRUITS      213 

enough  for  most  fruits.  Light  the  sulphur.  This  can  be 
done  by  placing  some  shavings  in  the  pan,  lighting  these 
and  pouring  the  sulphur  on  them.  Place  the  burning 
sulphur  in  the  sulphur  house  and  close  the  door.  Expose 
apples  to  the  burning  sulphur  fumes  30  min. ;  apricots  and 
peaches  3  hours  and  pears  6  hours.  Sulphuring  prevents 
the  fruits  darkening  and  molding  during  drying. 

4.  Place  the  fruit  in  the  sun  to  dry.    Dry  until  it  be- 
comes leathery  and  tough  but  not  brittle.     A  better 
product  will  be  obtained  if  the  trays  are  stacked  one 
above  the  other  in  stacks  of  10  or  12  trays  each  when 
the  fruit  is  about  %  dry.    It  will  then  finish  drying  in  the 
shade  and  will  be  of  more  uniform  quality. 

5.  Sweating.    Sweating  consists  of  equalization  of  the 
moisture  content.    Put  the  dried  fruit  in  large  boxes  or 
in  bins  and  leave  a  week  or  10  days.     It  is  then  ready 
for  selling  to  the  packing  house. 

6.  Processing.    If  the  fruit  is  for  home  use  and  is  not 
to  be  sold  to  a  packing  house,  it  must  be  sterilized  to 
prevent  its  being  spoiled  by  insects  that  come  from  in- 
sect eggs  deposited  on  the  fruit  during  drying.     To  do 
this  plunge  the  fruit  into  violently  boiling  water  for  about 
1  min.    Drain.    Dry  on  trays  in  the  sun  for  a  few  hours. 
The  dipping  destroys  insects  and  their  eggs. 

7.  Packing  and  Storing.    Pack  the  fruit  in  heavy  paper 
bags  or  in  jars  or  other  insect  proof  containers.     Plain 
cloth  or  burlap  bags  are  not  insect  proof.     Store  in  a 
dry  place. 

8.  Precautions.    A  dry  rainless  climate  is  essential  to 
successful  sun  drying.     In  case,  of  rain,  stack  the  trays 
one  above  the  other  and  cover  'with  a  rain  shedding 
cover,  or  bring  the  fruit  indoors  until  the  rain  has  passed. 
Do  not  use  wood  for  trays  that  will  give  a  disagreeable 
flavor  or  color  to  the  fruit. 

(76)  Sun  Drying  Prunes. 

1.  Allow  fruit  to  ripen  thoroughly  on  the  trees,  and 


214     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

if   possible    permit  it    to  drop  from  the    trees   before 
picking. 

2.  Dipping.     Prepare  a  lye  solution  of  %  an  °z-  of 
lye  per  gallon  of  water.    This  will  be  approximately  y%  a 
tablespoonful  per  gallon  or  5  oz.  per  10  gallons.     Heat 
this  to  boiling  in  an  iron  or  agateware  pot;  aluminum 
dissolves.    Place  the  prunes  in  a  wire  basket.    Immerse 
them  in  the  boiling  lye  solution  long  enough  to  check 
or  crack  the  skins  slightly  over  the  entire  surface.    This 
will  require  about  10  seconds.     The  time  will  vary  with 
the  variety  of  the  fruit  and  its  condition.    Rinse  in  cold 
water  after  the  lye  dipping. 

3.  Spread  on  trays  and  dry  in  the  sun.    It  will  usually 
be  necessary  to  occasionally  stir  or  turn  the  fruit  on  the 
trays  during  drying  to  prevent  sticking  to  the  trays  and 
molding. 

4.  Stacking  the  Trays.    When  the  fruit  is  about  three- 
fourths  dried  stack  the  trays  one  above  the  other  and 
allow  drying  to  complete.    This  will  prevent  overdrying 
and  gives  a  more  evenly  dried  product. 

5.  Storing  and  Processing.    As  for  apricots.     (See  Re- 
cipe 75.) 

(77)  Drying  Thompson  Seedless  and  Sultana  Grapes. 

1.  Raisin  making  requires  a  dry  hot  climate  free  from 
rains.    Dip  the  ripe  grapes  in  a  lye  solution  as  directed 
for  prunes.    Rinse  in  water. 

2.  Unsulphured  Raisins.    Dry  in  the  sun  until  three- 
fourths  dry.     Stack  the  trays  and  allow  drying  to  com- 
plete.    During  drying  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  the 
grapes  by  inverting  one  tray  over  another.    This  is  done 
when  the  grapes  are  dried  about  one  half.     It  is  done 
to  equalize  drying.     This  gives  a  brown  raisin.     If  a 
bleached,   white  raisin  is  desired,   proceed  as  directed 
in  step  3. 

3.  Sulphured  Raisins.     If  a  bleached  white  product 
is  desired,  place  the  dipped  grapes  on  trays  and  expose 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  FRUITS     215 

to  fumes  of  burning 'sulphur  for  3  hours.     Then  dry  in 
the  sun  in  usual  way. 

(78)  Drying  Muscat  and  Currant  Grapes. 

1.  These  varieties  are  not  dipped  or  sulphured.    Pick 
when  ripe.    Spread  on  trays  and  expose  to  the  sun. 

2.  When  about  one-half  dry  turn  the  grapes  by  plac- 
ing an  empty  tray  over  the  loaded  tray.     Turn  the  two 
quickly  and  remove  the  upper  one.     This  exposes  to  the 
sun  the  grapes  that  were  previously  on  the  bottom  of  the 
bunches  and  next  to  the  tray. 

3.  When  the  grapes  are  about  three-fourths  dry,  stack 
the  trays  and  allow  the  grapes  to  finish  drying  in  the 
stack. 

(79)  Packing  Raisins. 

1.  Raisins  are  usually  commercially  packed  as  follows: 
The  stems  are  removed  by  stemming  machine.  The 
seeds  of  Muscat  raisins  are  removed  by  a  seeding  ma- 
chine. The  raisins  are  packed  in  wax  paper-lined  cartons. 
They  must  be  stored  secure  from  insects.  Dipping  in 
boiling  water  before  packing  will  kill  insect  eggs. 

(80)  Sun  Drying  Cherries. 

1.  Cherries  may  be  dried  in  the  same  way  as  directed 
for  prunes  or  may  be  dried  without  dipping. 

(81)  Sun  Drying  Figs. 

1.  Allow  the  figs  to  partially  dry  on  the  trees  and 
drop  of  their  own  accord.    A  dry  hot  climate  is  nec- 
essary. 

2.  Place  on  trays  and  dry  in  the  sun. 

3.  Bleaching.    If  a  bleached  fig  is  desired,  dip  the  dried 
white  figs  in  boiling  water  for  about  3  min.     Expose  to 
sulphur  fumes  3  hours.    Dry  in  the  sun. 

4.  Packing  and  Storing.     Commercially  the  dried  figs 
are  slit  from  stem  to  calyx  on  one  side  and  spread  flat. 
They  are  packed  and  pressed  into  bricks.     These  are 
wrapped  in  paraffined  paper  and  placed  in  cartons.    For 
home  use  they  may  be  sterilized  by  dipping  in  boiling 


216     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

water  1  min.;  drying  a  short  time  and  then  packing  in 

insect  proof  containers. 

(82)  Drying  Fruits  in  Evaporators. 

1.  In  rainy  or  moist  climates,  or  late  in  the  season, 
artificial  dryers  may  become  necessary.     Build  one  to 
suit  your  needs.    (See  Chap.  XII,  par.  67,  for  description 
and  figures  of  evaporators.)     Trays  with  wire  screen 
bottoms  will  be  needed  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  heat. 
A  thermometer  will  be  necessary. 

2.  Prepare  the  fruit  for  drying  as  previously  described 
under  Recipes  75  to  81,  inclusive,  and  place  on  the  dryer 
trays.    If  the  fruit  is  to  be  sulphured,  sulphur  as  directed 
in  preceding  recipes. 

3.  Apples.    Start  the  evaporator  at  110°  F.  and  grad- 
ually raise  to  140°  F.  near  the  end  of  drying.    They  should 
dry  in  8  hours  or  less.    Apples  should  be  sulphured  for 
20  min.  before  drying. 

4.  Apricots  and  Peaches.     A  temperature  of  120°  F. 
may  be  used  to  start.     Gradually  increase  to  140°.  F. 
They  should  be  dry  in  6  hours. 

5.  Berries.    Dry  very  slowly  at  first  (110°  to  120°  F.), 
for  about  2  hours,  starting  at  110°  F.  and  gradually 
reaching  120°  F.  in  the  above  time.    Gradually  increase 
to  130°  F.  and  complete  most  of  the  drying  at  this  tem- 
perature.   Too  rapid  heating  causes  dripping  and  melt- 
ing.   They  should  dry  in  5  hours. 

6.  Cherries.    Start  at  110°  F.  and  increase  slowly  to 
150°  F.    About  4  hours  will  be  necessary. 

7.  Pears.     Dry  after  cutting  in  half  and  sulphuring 
6  hours.    Start  at  110°  F.  and  increase  slowly  to  140°  F. 

Or  peel,  core,  cut  in  eighths  and  dry  without  sulphur- 
ing as  above. 

8.  Prunes.    Dip  as  in  Recipe  76.    Dry  as  directed  for 
cherries  above. 

9.  Grapes.    All  grapes  should  be  dipped  in  boiling  lye 
solution  of  }/2  oz.  per  gallon,  and  rinsed  in  cold  water 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  FRUITS      217 

before  drying.  See -Recipe  77.  Start  drying  at  110°  F. 
and  increase  to  140°  F.  Temperatures  above  140°  F. 
will  give  a  "  scorched  "  or  caramelized  taste  to  the 
raisins. 

10.  Figs.     Allow  to  dry  as  much  as  possible  on  the 
trees.     Place  in  the  evaporator.     Start  at  110°  F.  and 
increase  slowly  to  140°  F. 

11.  Processing  and  Storing.     Artificially   evaporated 
fruits  contain  no  insect  eggs.     As  soon  as  dry,  pack  in 
insect  proof  packages  and  store  in  a  dry  place. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  VEGETABLES 

Vegetables  may  be  readily  sun  dried  in  most  climates 
but  the  quality  of  sun  dried  vegetables  is  usually  not  so 
high  as  that  of  artificially  dried  vegetables.  Sun  dried 
vegetables  are  usually  exposed  to  attacks  by  insects,  and 
insect  eggs  are  usually  deposited  upon  them  during 
drying.  This  makes  it  imperative  to  sterilize  vegetables 
that  have  been  dried  in  the  sun,  to  make  certain  that 
they  will  not  be  destroyed  by  insects  during  storage 
later.  Careful  attention  should  be  therefore  paid  to  the 
directions  given  in  the  various  recipes  for  the  sterilization 
of  dried  vegetables. 
(83)  Sun  Drying  String  Beans  and  Peas. 

1.  String  the   beans  and   break  into  lengths  as  for 
cooking.     Shell  the  peas.     Peas  and  beans  for  drying 
should  be  young  and  tender.     The  vegetables  will  not 
become   so  tough  during  drying  if  they  are  parboiled 
10  minutes  before  drying. 

2.  Spread  on  trays  in  the  sun.     Allow  to  dry  about 
one-half  day  in  sun.    Then  stack  the  trays  one  above  the 
other  or  place  the  trays  in  the  shade  to  finish  drying. 
This  will  prevent  bleaching. 

3.  Processing  and  Storing.     Dip  in  boiling  water  for 
%  to  1  min.  when  dry  to  kill  insect  eggs;  dry  in  the 
sun  a  few  hours  and  pack  in  insect  proof  packages.    Or 
the  dried  vegetables  may  be  sterilized  by  heating  in 
an  oven  long  enough  to  heat  them  through  thoroughly. 
This  is  a  very  satisfactory  method.     Peas  are  liable  to 
attack  by  weevils  unless  sterilized  as  above. 

218 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  VEGETABLES    219 

(84)  Sun  Drying  Corn. 

1.  Use  freshly  picked  sweet  corn.     Cook  in  boiling 
water  for  10  min.    Remove  and  cut  from  the  cob. 

2.  Spread  on  trays  and  dry  in  the  sun. 

3.  Sterilize  and  store  as  directed  for  peas  and  beans. 
(Recipe  83.) 

(85)  Sun  Drying  Irish  Potatoes. 

1.  Cook  until  almost  done.    Peel. 

2.  Slice  and  spread  on  trays.     Dry  in  the  sun  until 
brittle. 

3.  Alternative  Method.     Peel.     Slice  the  raw  potatoes 
and   spread   on   trays.      Expose   to   sulphur  fumes  for 
20  min.    Dry  in  sun. 

4.  Storing.    As  in  Recipe  83. 

(86)  Sun  Drying  Sweet  Potatoes. 

1.  Cook  with  skins  on  until  almost  done.    Peel  and  slice. 

2.  Dry  in  the  sun. 

3.  Store  as  in  Recipe  83. 

(87)  Sun  Drying  Carrots,  Turnips,   Onions,    Cabbage, 
and  Cauliflower. 

1.  Peel  and  slice  carrots  and  turnips.     Slice  the  cab- 
bage.    Break  the  cauliflower  heads  into  small  pieces. 
Place  on  trays. 

2.  Expose  to  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for  30  to  40 
min.     (See  Chap.  XII,  par.  64,  for  description  of  sul- 
phuring box.) 

3.  Dry  in  the  sun.    Store  as  in  Recipe  83. 

4.  Alternative  Method.     Prepare  as  in  1.     Parboil  in 
boiling  water  10  min.     Spread  on  trays  and  dry  in  the 
sun.     This  method  produces  darker  colored  dried  vege- 
tables than  where  sulphur  is  used  but  is  probably  better 
adapted  to  household  use. 

(88)  Sun  Drying  of  Beets,  Pumpkin,  and  Squash. 

1.  Peel  and  cut  in  slices  about  /^s  m-  thick.  Place 
on  trays  and  dry  in  the  sun.  No  sulphuring  or  parboil- 
ing are  necessary. 


220     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 


2.  It  will  usually  be  necessary  to  turn  the  vegetables 
occasionally  during  drying  to  prevent  molding. 

3.  Store  as  directed  in  Recipe  83. 

4.  Alternative   Method  for   Beets.     Parboil   the   beets 
until  they  may  be  peeled  easily.    Peel,  slice  and  dry. 

(89)  Sun     Drying 
Tomatoes. 

1.  Use   ripe  firm 
fruit.     Cut  in   half 
and  place  on  trays 
with  cut  side  upper- 
most. 

2.  Expose     to 
fumes    of     burning 
sulphur     for     lJ/£ 
hours. 

3.  Dry  in  the  sun. 

4.  A  Her  native 
FIG.  61.  Hand   Power  Vegetable  Slicer 

(Courtesy  Berger  and  Carter) 

surfaces  with  salt.    Dry  in  the  sun. 
product. 

5.  Process  and  store  as  in  Recipe  83. 

(90)  Sun  Drying  Peppers. 

1.  Use  ripe  red  peppers. 

2.  String  on  a  coarse  thread  and  hang  the  peppers 
in  the  sun  until  almost  dry.    Hang  in  the  kitchen  to  com- 
plete drying. 

3.  Storing.    A  good  way  to  store  dried  peppers  is  to 
merely  hang  them  from  the  ceiling  or  a  nail  on  the  string 
on  which  they  were  dried.     No  processing  is  necessary. 

(91)  Drying  Vegetables  in  an  Artificial  Evaporator. 

1.  Prepare  for  drying  as  directed  in  Recipes  83  to  90, 
inclusive.  Use  an  evaporator  with  wire  screen  trays  and 
equipped  with  a  thermometer.  Any  of  the  forms  de- 
scribed and  figured  in  Chap.  XII,  par.  67  may  be  used. 


Method.  Cut  in  half 
and  sprinkle  cut 
This  gives  a  darker 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  DRYING  OF  VEGETABLES    221 

2.  Begin  drying  at  110°  F.  and  gradually  increase  the 
temperature  to  145°  F.  until  vegetables  are  brittle  dry. 

3.  Allow  the  vegetables  to  stand  in  a  bin  or  box  se- 
curely covered  with  a  cloth  to  exclude  insects.     They 
will  in  a  few  days  absorb  enough  moisture  to  become 
leathery  and  tough. 

4.  Store  in  insect  proof  packages.     If  cloth  or  burlap 
bags  are  used,  first  tie  in  paper  to  exclude  insects.    Store 
in  a  dry  place. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
RECIPES  FOR  THE  MAKING  OF  VINEGAR 

The  principles  of  fermentation  and  vinegar  making  will 
be  found  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV.  If  these  principles 
are  understood  the  following  recipes  will  be  much  more 
useful.  The  use  of  good  material  must  be  emphasized; 
good  vinegar  cannot  be  made  from  partially  decomposed 
fruits.  Nevertheless,  cull  fruits,  if  sound,  fruit  peelings, 
cores,  etc.,  can  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
(92)  Home  Manufacture  of  Vinegar  from  Whole  Fruits. 

1.  Crush  the  fruit  and  heat  to  boiling.    Press  out  the 
juice  through  a  jelly  bag  or  coarse  cloth.     Allow  the 
juice  to  cool  overnight  in  an  agateware  pot  or  stoneware 
crock  or  wooden  bucket  or  barrel.    If  fruits  are  soft  and 
juicy,  heating  is  not  necessary. 

2.  On  the  next  day  break  up  a  yeast  cake  for  each 
5  gals,  or  less  of  juice  and  mix  it  with  the  juice.     In 
24  hours  the  juice  will  be  fermenting.    Allow  the  juice  to 
stand  in  the  crock,  or  bucket,  etc.,  until  fermentation 
ceases.    This  will  require  about  2  to  3  weeks.    Allow  to 
stand  1  week  longer  for  the  yeast  to  settle.     This  will 
make  a  total  of  3  to  4  weeks  from  the  time  the  fruit  was 
pressed. 

3.  When  fermentation  is  over  and  the  yeast  has  settled, 
pour  or  draw  off  the  fermented  liquid  into  another  con- 
tainer of  the  same  kind  in  which  fermentation  has  taken 
place  or  pour  it  off  and  return  it  to  the  original  con- 
tainers. 

4.  To  each  gallon  of  the  liquid  add  1  pint  of  good 
vinegar,  preferably  vinegar  from  a  barrel.     This  adds  a 

222 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  MAKING  OF  VINEGAR     223 

starter  of  vinegar  bacteria  and  the  vinegar  acid  favors  a 
rapid  start  of  vinegar  fermentation. 

5.  Cover  the  jar  or  bucket,  etc.,  with  a  cheesecloth  so 
that  insects  will  be  screened  out  and  so  that  air  may  get 
to  the  liquid  freely.    An  abundant  supply  of  air  is  neces- 
sary for  vinegar  formation.     If  a  barrel  is  used  arrange 
it  as  shown  in  Fig.  49.    The  barrel  should  be  left  about 
two-thirds  to  three-fourths  full.     Leave  the  bung  open 
and  bore  a  hole  at  each  end  of  the  barrel  just  above  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  as  shown  in  Fig.  49.     Cover  the 
holes  with  fine  screen  or  cheesecloth  to  keep  out  insects. 
Leave  in  a  warm  place  until  vinegar  forms.     This  will 
be  in  2  to  12  months,  depending  on  temperature  condi- 
tions.   A  warm  room  is  best. 

6.  The  vinegar  may  then  be  drawn  off  and  strained  or 
filtered  and  should  be  bottled  or  stored  in  completely 
filled  and  closed  barrels  to  prevent  deterioration. 

(93)  Vinegar  from  Cores,  Peels,  and  Fruit  Scraps. 

1.  Often  fruit  scraps  are  wasted.     These  will  make 
good  vinegar. 

2.  To  each  cupful  of  scraps,  add  2  cups  of  water  or 
enough  to  cover  well.    Boil  about  10  to  15  min.  and  press 
out  the  juice. 

3.  To  each  10  cups  of  liquid  add  1  cup  of  sugar  and 
stir  until  dissolved.     Allow  to  cool  overnight  in  a  jar  or 
other  convenient  container.     (Do  not  use  tin.) 

4.  Proceed  from  this  point  as  in  Recipe  92. 

(94)  Vinegar  from  Honey  and  Sirups. 

1.  To  each  cup  of  the  honey  or  sirup  add  4  cups  of 
water  and  a  half  cup  of  any  fruit  juice. 

2.  Mix  well  and  proceed  from  this  point  as  in  Recipe 
92. 

(95)  Clarifying  Vinegar. 

1.  With  Fish  Isinglass.  If  a  large  amount  of  vinegar 
is  to  be  made  for  sale  it  should  be  made  as  clear  as  possi- 
ble. This  may  be  done  by  filtration  until  clear  or  may 


224     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

be  accomplished  by  clarification.  Fish  isinglass  is  most 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose.  The  Russian  isinglass 
is  best. 

If  the  vinegar  is  very  cloudy,  weigh  out  2  oz.  of  isin- 
glass for  each  100  gals.;  if  moderately  cloudy,  1  oz.  and 
if  only  slightly  cloudy,  ^  to  ^  oz.  Soak  each  ounce  in 
about  1  gal.  of  vinegar  for  several  days.  It  will  swell  and 
become  soft.  Break  it  up  thoroughly  and  work  it  into 
solution  in  the  vinegar.  Pressing  it  through  a  fine 
screen  will  aid.  Then  add  it  to  the  larger  lot  of  vinegar 
in  the  proportion  required  as  noted  above.  Stir  well  and 
let  settle  until  clear.  Draw  off  the  cleared  vinegar  with  a 
hose  or  through  a  spigot. 

2.  With  Spanish  Clay.  This  is  a  clay  of  poor  pottery 
clay  grade.  For  each  100  gals,  of  vinegar  weigh  out 
5  to  8  Ibs.  of  clay,  depending  on  the  cloudiness  of  the 
vinegar.  Soak  in  the  proportion  of  1  Ib.  of  clay  to  1  gal. 
of  vinegar  until  soft.  Work  up  into  a  thin  mud  in  the 
vinegar;  it  must  be  finely  broken  up  into  a  smooth  mud 
or  "  solution."  This  will  require  a  great  deal  of  crushing 
and  stirring.  An  old  butter  churn  may  be  used.  Add  the 
clay  solution  to  the  vinegar  in  the  amount  required  (5  to 
8  Ibs.  clay  per  100  gals,  of  vinegar).  Stir.  Allow  to 
settle  several  days.  Draw  off  clear  vinegar  and  filter  the 
sediment. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
RECIPES  FOR  FRUIT  WINES 

The  following  recipes  for  fruit  wines  are  designed  for 
the   home   or  very   small   scale   manufacture   of   these 
fermented  fruit  juices. 
(96)  Red  Wine. 

1.  Use  ripe  red  wine  grapes  of  good  color.    Crush  them 
thoroughly  into  a  wooden  tub  or  open  barrel  or  open 
stoneware  jars.  Crushing  may  be  done  with  a  fruit  crusher 
or  with  the  hands.    Place  in  a  warm  place. 

2.  In  a  day  or  two  fermentation  will  start.     Stir  the 
grapes  thoroughly  and  vigorously  three  times  daily  for 
about  one  week.    By  this  time  the  juice  should  be  deep 
red  in  color;  if  not,  leave  a  few  days  longer. 

3.  Press  out  the  fermenting  red  juice  from  the  skins 
and  stems.    Place  it  in  a  cask  or  barrel  or  demijohn  and 
leave  in  a  warm  place  till  fermentation  is  over.    Then  fill 
the  barrel  or  demijohn  with  wine  and  place  a  barrel  bung 
or  cork  in  loosely  to  close  it.    Do  not  drive  it  in.    Leave 
thus  for  about  2  or  3  weeks.     Then  drive  the  bung  or 
cork  in  tightly.     Leave  for  three  weeks  longer.     Then 
draw  off  the  wine  from  the  sediment  and  transfer  to  other 
barrels  or  bottles,  filling  them  full  and  sealing  tightly. 
If  barrels  are  used  they  should  be  filled  up  occasionally, 
once  a  month,  with  wine  to  replace  that  lost  by  evapora- 
tion. 

4.  After  6  months  draw  off  the  wine  again  and  fill  into 
clean   barrels    or   demijohns    and    seal.      Repeat    after 
6  months. 

5.  Store  till  wine  is  aged  sufficiently  to  be  used.    This 
will  usually  not  be  under  1  year.    It  may  then  be  bottled, 

225 


226     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

corked    and    stored    till   used.      Bottling   stops   further 
aging  and  checks  deterioration. 

6.  Suggestions.  Better  results  will  be  obtained  if  a 
culture  of  wine  yeast  is  used  for  fermentation.  Such  a 
culture  can  be  obtained  from  the  Division  of  Viticulture, 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  for  one  dollar.  Grapes 
must  be  sound  and  not  moldy.  Keep  all  utensils  scru- 
pulously clean. 

(97)  White  Wine. 

1.  Crush  ripe  white  grapes  and  press  out  the  juice. 

2.  Allow  to  ferment  in  a  barrel,  cask,  or  demijohn  in  a 
warm  place.     When  fermented  completely,  proceed  as 
directed  for  red  wine. 

(98)  Hard  Cider  from  Apples,  Oranges,  and  Other  Fruits. 

1.  Yeast  Starter.    Crush  and  press  out  the  juice  from  a 
small  amount  of  sound  fruit.    Place  this  in  a  jar  in  a  warm 
place.    When  this  is  fermenting  rapidly  (after  about  4  or 
5  days),  it  may  be  used  to  start  a  larger  lot.     Make 
enough  for  1  gal.  of  yeast  to  each  10  gals,  of  juice. 

2.  Crush  and  press  the  main  lot  of  fruit.    Add  1  gal.  of 
the  yeast  starter  from  (1)  to  each  10  gals,  of  juice  and 
mix  thoroughly. 

3.  Allow  to  ferment  until  fermentation  ceases.     Fill 
the  containers  with  fermented  or  hard  cider  and  close 
them  with  bungs  or  corks  as  the  case  requires. 

4.  Allow  to  settle  several  weeks.     Draw  off  from  the 
sediment  and  filter  as  clearly  as  possible.     Store  in  well 
filled  and  closed  containers.    The  cider  will  be  ready  for 
use  in  a  few  months.    It  should  then  be  bottled  to  pre- 
vent deterioration. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

RECIPES   FOR   THE   PRESERVATION   OF  VEGE- 
TABLES BY  SALT  OR  FERMENTATION 

Vegetables  may  be  preserved  by  heavy  salting  with 
dry  salt,  by  storage  in  strong  brine  and  by  fermentation 
in  a  weak  brine  or  in  the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of 
salt.  Recipes  for  the  use  of  all  three  methods  are  given. 
If  the  salting  is  carefully  done,  the  salted  vegetables 
will  be  very  attractive  in  flavor  and  appearance.  They 
will  possess  more  of  the  fresh  vegetable  flavor  and  odor 
than  will  canned  vegetables.  The  principles  of  preserva- 
tion of  vegetables  by  salt  will  be  found  in  Chap.  XVI, 
pars.  96  and  97.  A  knowledge  of  these  principles  will 
be  of  great  assistance  in  carrying  out  the  directions  given 
in  the  recipes. 
(99)  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Dry  Salt. 

1.  Slice  or  shred  the  vegetables  and  weigh.     String 
beans  are  prepared  and  broken  as  for  cooking. 

2.  Weigh  1  Ib.  of  salt  to  each  4  Ibs.  of  vegetables. 
Place  a  layer  of  the  salt  in  the  bottom  of  a  crock  or  barrel 
or  wooden  tub.     Do  not  use  metal  containers.     Build 
the  sliced  or  broken  vegetables  and  salt  up  in  alternate 
layers  until  the  container  is  full.     Cover  last  layer  of 
vegetables  with  a  layer  of  salt. 

3.  Place  a  false  wooden  head  small  enough  to  fit  in- 
side the  container  on  top  of  the  mixture.    Place  a  heavy 
weight  on  this  head.    Leave  until  the  liquid  is  forced  out 
of  the  vegetables  and  they  are  immersed  in  the  brine 
formed  by  their  own  juice  and  the  salt.     This  will  be 
in  about  2  weeks. 

227 


228     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

4.  Remove  the  false  head  and  weight  and  seal  with 
paraffin  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  liquid. 

5.  The  vegetables  will  keep  indefinitely  and  retain 
much  of  the  original  appearance  and  flavor  of  the  fresh 
vegetables.     To  use  them,  soak  in  a  large  volume  of 
water  overnight;  for  example,  by  suspending  them  in  a 
cheesecloth  bag  near  the  surface  of  a  large  pot  of  water. 
Or  parboil  to  remove  salt.     Then  cook  and  prepare  for 
the  table  in  the  usual  ways. 

(100)  Preservation  of  Vegetables  in  Strong  Brine. 

1.  Prepare  a  brine  of  8^2  Ibs.  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water.     Immerse  the  whole  vegetables  in  this  and  keep 
them  submerged  by  means  of  a  wooden  float.     Do  not 
use  metal  containers.     This  method  is  especially  good 
for  peppers,  artichokes,  cauliflower  and  other  vegetables 
not  readily  preserved  by  the  dry  salting  process. 

2.  If  the  vegetables  show  mold  or  fermentation  at 
any  time  add  more  salt.     They  will  keep  better  if  the 
container  is  sealed  with  paraffin. 

3.  Freshen  for  use  as  in  preceding  recipe. 

(101)  Preservation  of  Cabbage  by  Fermentation  (Sauer- 
kraut). 

1.  Shred  the  cabbage  into  narrow  strips  and  weigh. 

2.  For  each  10  Ibs.  of  cabbage  weight  6  oz.  to  8  oz. 
(]/2  Ib.)  of  cooking  or  fine  dairy  salt. 

3.  Mix  the  salt  and  cabbage  very  thoroughly  in  a 
stoneware  crock  or  wooden  container.     Place  a  false 
head  on  the  cabbage.    A  wooden  head  to  fit  inside  the 
container  may  be  made  or  a  plate  may  be  used  for  small 
amounts  of  material  in  a  crock.     Place  a  heavy  weight 
on  the  false  head  (do  not  use  limestone  because  it  is 
acted  upon  by  the  sauerkraut). 

4.  Leave  in  a  warm  place.    The  juice  of  the  cabbage 
soon  forms  a  brine.     Fermentation  will  soon  start  and 
foam  will  appear.     After  about  three  weeks  the  kraut 
should  have  the  desired  flavor.     When  a  scum  appears, 


PRESERVATION  BY  SALT  OR  FERMENTATION    229 

skim  it  off.    If  this  scum  is  left  undisturbed,  it  may  com- 
pletely spoil  the  product. 

5.  When  fermentation  ceases  and  the  kraut  has  de- 
veloped the  proper  flavor,  it  may  be  kept  by  sealing  it 
over  with  paraffin.  A  better  way  is  to  heat  it  to  boiling 
and  pack  boiling  hot  in  jars.  Sterilize  3/2  hour  in  a  wash- 
boiler  sterilizer  at  212°  F.  and  seal.  It  will  then  keep 
indefinitely. 

(102)  Preservation  of  String  Beans,  Beets,  and  Greens 
by  Fermentation. 

1.  String  and  break  the  beans  into  lengths  as  for 
cooking.     They  should  be  small  and  tender.     Peel  the 
beets  and  slice.    Trim  greens  as  for  cooking  for  the  table. 

2.  Weigh  the  vegetables  and  for  each  10  Ibs.  of  vege- 
tables weigh  out  y^  Ib.  of  cooking  or  dairy  salt.     Mix 
vegetables  and   salt  intimately  in  a   crock   or  barrel. 
Place  false  wooden  cover  and  heavy  weight  on  the  ma- 
terial.    Leave  in  warm  place.     The  juice  of  the  vege- 
tables will  form  a  brine  in  which  fermentation  will  take 
place.    The  fermentation  should  be  done  in  3  weeks. 

3.  Seal  with  a  thick  layer  of  melted  paraffin. 

4.  Whenever  the  container  is  opened  to  remove  ma- 
terial  for   cooking,    it   should   be   resealed   again   with 
paraffin. 

(103)  1  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Fermentation  in 
Brine. 

1.  Cucumbers,   string  beans,  green  tomatoes,   beets, 
beet  tops,  and  turnip  tops,  peas,  corn  and  peppers  may 
be  preserved  in  this  way. 

2.  Wash   the   vegetables  and   drain   off   the   surplus 
moisture.    Pack  in  a  keg  or  crock  or  other  utensil  until 
nearly  full  (within  about  3  in.  of  the  top).     Prepare  a 
weak  brine  as  follows:  To  each  gallon  of  water  used,  add 
%  pint  of  vinegar  and  %  cup  of  salt  and  stir  until  salt  is 
entirely  dissolved.     The  amount  of  brine  necessary  to 

1  From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  881,  U.  S.  D.  A. 


230     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

cover  the  vegetables  will  be  equal  to  about  one-half 
the  volume  of  the  vegetables. 

3.  Pour  the  brine  over  the  vegetables  to  cover  them 
and  keep  them  submerged  by  means  of  a  wooden  cover. 
Leave  in  a  warm  place  until  fermentation  is  over. 

4.  Remove  to  a  cool  place  and  seal  with  melted  paraf- 
fin.   If  mold  has  formed,  skim  it  off  before  sealing.    Dill 
and  spices  may  be  added  to  the  brine  if  desired,  when 
it  is  poured  on  the  vegetables.     Vegetables  prepared  in 
this  way  have  a  sour  taste. 

(104)  Dill  Pickles. 

1.  Wash  the   cucumbers.     Prepare  a  crock  or  keg, 
barrel  or  wooden  bucket.    Do  not  use  metal. 

2.  Place  a  layer  of  dill  plant  in  the  bottom  of  the  con- 
tainer and  a  small  quantity  of  mixed  "'dill  pickle  spices." 
These  may  be  obtained  from  a  grocery.     Place  two  or 
three  layers  of  cucumbers  on  these  spices  and  dill  plant. 
Add  another  layer  of  dill  plant  and  spices  and  two  or 
three  layers  of  cucumbers,  repeating  the  alternation  of 
layers  until  the  container  is  almost  full. 

3.  Cover  with  a  layer  of  beet  leaves  or  grape  leaves  at 
least  1  in.  thick.     Fill  and  cover  with  a  brine  made  of 
1  Ib.  of  salt,  10  qts.  of  water  and  %  qt.  of  vinegar. 

4.  Allow  to  stand  until  fermentation  ceases  (3  to  4 
weeks).    Seal  with  paraffin. 

5.  If  large  barrels  are  used  the  barrels  may  be  headed 
up  after  filling  with  the  cucumbers  and  spice  and  then 
filled  with  a  brine,  made  as  above.     Leave  the  bung- 
hole  open.     When  fermentation  is  over  the  barrel  may 
be  completely  filled  with  the  brine  and  the  bunghole 
closed. 

6.  Dill  pickles  may  be  kept  indefinitely  by  heating  to 
boiling  in  the  brine  in  which  they  are  made  and  sealing 
boiling  hot  in  glass  top  jars. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

RECIPES  FOR  THE  MAKING  OF  PICKLES  AND 
RELISHES 

A  great  many  products  may  be  grouped  under  the 
heading  of  pickles  'and  relishes.  Directions  for  the  home 
manufacture  of  the  most  important  of  these  are  given 
in  the  following  recipes.  The  principles  involved  will 
be  found  in  Chap.  XVI,  pars.  98-102,  inclusive. 

(105)  Cucumber  Pickles  in  Vinegar. 

1.  Choose  small  cucumbers. 

2.  Prepare  a  brine  of  2  Ibs.  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water. 
Place  the  cucumbers  in  this  and  keep  them  submerged 
with  a  wooden  float.     Store  in  this  brine  for  about  4 
weeks.     Fermentation  will  take  place  and  a  scum  will 
form.    If  the  pickles  become  soft,  add  more  salt. 

3.  After  about  4  weeks  remove  the  cucumbers  and 
heat  them  in  a  large  amount  of  water  to  the  simmering 
point  for  about  20  min.     Discard  this  water  and  cover 
with  fresh  water.     Heat  to  the  simmering  point;  remove 
from  fire  and  let  stand  about  2  hours  to  soak  out  the  excess 
salt.     If  the  pickles  tend  to  be  soft  or  " flabby,"  add  a 
tablespoonf ul  of  alum  per  gallon  of  water.    This  will  harden 
them  and  not  injure  health. 

4.  Rinse  in  cold  water.    Drain.    Store  in  strong  cider 
vinegar  of  good  quality  until  ready  for  use.     If  at  any 
time  the  pickles  soften  or  mold,  place  them  in  fresh 
vinegar.     Pack  in  wide  mouth  corked  bottles  or  in  jars 
with  glass  tops.    Do  not  use  metal. 

(106)  Onion,  Green  Tomatoes,  and  Cauliflower  Pickles 
in  Vinegar. 

1.  Place  the  vegetables  in  a  brine  of  3^  Ibs.  of  salt 
231 


232     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

per  gallon  of  water.     Store  for  4  to  6  weeks  or  longer 
keeping  them  submerged  in  the  brine. 

2.  Remove   and  treat  as  directed  for  cucumbers  in 
preceding  recipes  (1),  (2),  and  (3). 

(107)  Sweet  Vegetable  Pickles. 

1.  Prepare  the  cucumbers,  green  tomatoes,  etc.,  as 
directed  in  Recipes  105  and  106  to  the  point  where  they 
are  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  vinegar.     Prick  the  pre- 
pared vegetables  through  and  through  in  several  places 
with  silver  fork.    This  will  permit  the  sweet  vinegar  to 
penetrate  without  shrivelling  the  vegetables.     If  they 
are  soft,  heat  them  a  short  time  in  water  containing 
1  tablespoonful  of  alum  per  gallon. 

2.  Prepare  a  sirup  as  follows: 

3  cups  of  vinegar  (1^  pints). 

5  '  sugar   (2^/2  pints),   brown  sugar  is   pre- 

ferred. 
1  tablespoonful  mace 

1  ginger  root 

2  stick  cinnamon 
1  whole  cloves 

Boil  the  vinegar  and  spices  together  slowly  for  about 
5  min. 

3.  Heat  the  pickles  in  the  spiced  vinegar  to  boiling 
and  boil  about  10  min.    Pack  boiling  hot  into  glass  top 
jars  and  seal. 

(108)  Sweet  Fruit  Pickles. 

1.  Peel  peaches.     They  may  be  left  whole  or  cut  in 
half  as  desired.     Clingstone  peaches  are  the  best.    Peel 
pears  and  cut  in  half  and  remove  cores.    Cherries,  plums, 
and  figs  should  be  pricked  with  a  silver  fork  to  permit 
sirup   to   penetrate   without   shrivelling   them.      Whole 
Muscat,   Tokay  or  other  large  grapes  may  be   used. 
They  should  be  left  on  the  bunch. 

2.  Prepare  a  sirup  of  the  following: 

3  Ibs.  of  sugar 


fc  *'OR  MAKING  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES   233 


1  pint  of  water 
1  '  vinegar 

1  tablespoonful  of  ginger  root 
1J^  tablespoonfuls  of  whole  cloves 

2  "  stick  cinnamon 

3.  Place  the  fruit  in  this  sirup  and  cook  till  tender. 
Allow  to  stand  in  the  sirup  overnight.  On  the  next  day 
pour  off  the  sirup  and  boil  it  down  until  it  forms  a  heavy 
sirup.  If  the  sirup  is  thick  after  standing  overnight  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  boil  it  down  further.  Heat  the 
fruit  to  boiling  in  this  sirup  and  pack  boiling  hot  in 
glass  top  jars  and  seal  at  once. 

(109)  Sweet  Pickled  Watermelon  Rind. 

1.  Remove  outer  peel  and  cut  in  pieces  of  desired  size. 
Boil  in  salt  water  (4  tablespoonfuls  salt  per  quart),  for 
15  min.    Rinse  in  water  till  the  flavor  of  salt  is  gone. 

2.  Place  in  sirup  made  according  to  preceding  recipe. 
Boil  till  clear,  pack  hot  in  jars  and  seal. 

(110)  Spiced  Green  Tomatoes. 

1.  Prepare  a  sirup  of  the  following: 
4  Ibs.  of  sugar 

1  pint  of  vinegar 
1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 
1  "  cloves 

1  teaspoonful  allspice 

1  mace 

2.  Drop  6  Ibs.  whole  small  tomatoes  into  this  sirup 
and  cook  until  they  are  clear.    Pack  boiling  hot  in  jars 
and  seal. 

(111)  Chowchow.1 

1.  Take  and  cut  in  moderate  sized  pieces: 

2  qts.  of  small  cucumbers 
2     "     "       "     onions 

2     "     "       "     green  tomatoes 

1  From  Connecticut  Agricultural  College  Emergency  Food  Series 
No.  21. 


234     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

1  cup  salt 

J4  lb.  ground  mustard 
3  cups  of  sugar 

2  "     "    flour 

2  qts.  of  string  beans 

2  large  cauliflowers 
6  green  peppers 

3  red  peppers 

2  tablespoonfuls  ground  turmeric 

4  qts.  of  cider  vinegar 
1  bunch  of  celery 

2.  Remove  seeds  from  peppers.    Sprinkle  with  1  cupful 
of  salt  and  add  water  to  cover.     Let  stand  24  hours. 
Place  onions  in  separate  salt  water  to  stand  likewise. 

3.  Drain  water  from  onions  and  scald  all  vegetables  in 
the  water  in  which  the  peppers  have  stood  and  allow  to 
drain. 

4.  Make  a  paste  of  mixing  the  mustard,  turmeric, 
sugar  and  flour  with  a  little  cold  vinegar,  afterwards 
adding  the  balance  of  the  vinegar  which  has  come  to  a 
boil. 

5.  Stir  for  a  few  minutes  to  a  smooth  consistency,  then 
pour  over  the  drained  vegetables  and  cook  slowly  on  the 
back  of  the  stove  for  20  min.    Pack  hot  in  jars  and  seal. 
(112)  Mustard  Pickles. 

1.  Place  in  a  brine  of  J/2  cup  of  salt  per  quart  of  water 
the  following  vegetables  and  let  stand  overnight: 

1  pint  whole  small  cucumbers 

1     "     sliced  cucumbers 

1          whole  small  onions 

1  cup  of  string  beans  broken  into  lengths 

3  green  sweet  peppers  (chopped) 
3  red 

1  pint  small  green  tomatoes  cut  in  half 
1     "    of  cauliflower 

2.  Freshen  in  clear  water.    Allow  to  stand  in  a  mixture 


RECIPES  FOR  MAKING  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES  235 

of  water  and  vinegar  equal  parts.     Then  scald  in  the 
same  liquid. 

3.  Prepare  a  mustard  dressing  of  1  -qt.  of  vinegar,  4 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  1  cup  of  sugar,  3  tablespoonfuls  of 
powdered  mustard,  }/%  tablespoonful  of  celery  seed.    Rub 
all  the  dry  ingredients  together  first;  heat  the  vinegar  to 
boiling  and  add  slowly  to  the  dry  ingredients,  working 
them  into  a  fine  paste.    Cook  in  a  double  boiler  until  the 
sauce  thickens. 

4.  Add  the  hot  sauce  to  the  pickles  and  heat  to  sim- 
mering.   Pack  hot  in  jars.     Place  the  jars  in  a  washboiler 
sterilizer.    Sterilize  15  min.  at  212°  F.  and  seal. 

(113)  Piccalilli.1 

1.  Use  8  qts.   green  tomatoes,   2  or  3   green  sweet 
peppers  and   2   hot   peppers.     The   tomatoes  may  be 
chopped  or  sliced  in  }/%  in.  pieces.    Soak  the  tomatoes  and 
chopped  peppers  overnight  in  1  pint  of  salt  and  water  to 
cover.    Drain  thoroughly. 

2.  Heat  until  tender  in  the  following  mixture: 

3  qts.  vinegar 

4  cups  of  sugar 

1  teaspoonful  ginger  (ground) 

1  cinnamon  (ground) 

2  tablespoonfuls  mustard  (ground  or  whole). 

3.  Add  1  cup  of  grated  horseradish.     Heat  to  boiling 
and  seal.    Allspice,  cloves,  and  1  qt.  of  chopped  onions 
may  be  added  before  cooking. 

(114)  Chili  Sauce.1 

1.  Take  the  following  ingredients. 
2  qts.  of  ripe  tomatoes  (peeled) 
4  green  sweet  peppers 
4  tablespoonfuls  brown  sugar 
1  hot  pepper 
4  onions 

1  From  Circular  35,  Agricultural  Extension  Service,  University  ot 
Missouri,  by  Carrie  L.  Pancoast. 


236     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

1  tablespoonful  ginger 
]/2  teaspoonful  nutmeg 

2  tablespoonfuls  salt 

1  teaspoonful  cinnamon 

2.  Chop  the  vegetables,  add  the  other  ingredients  and 
cook  till  tender  (1J^  hours).    Then  add  3  cups  of  vinegar, 
boil  5  min.  and  seal  hot  in  jars. 
(115)  Dixie  Relish.1 

1.  Take 

1  qt.  chopped  cabbage 

1  pint  chopped  white  onions 

1  "       sweet  red  peppers 

1  "  "      green   " 

4  tablespoonfuls  mustard  seed 

2  celery         "     (crushed) 
3/2  cup  of  sugar 

1  qt.  of  vinegar 

5  tablespoonfuls  salt 

2.  Soak  the  peppers  in  brine  (1  cup  of  salt  to  1  gal.  of 
water),  for  24  hours.     Freshen  in  clear  cold  water  for 
1  to  2  hours.     Drain  well.     Remove  seeds  and  coarse 
white  sections.     Chop  separately  and  measure  chopped 
cabbage,  peppers,  and  onions  before  mixing.    Add  spices, 
sugar  and  vinegar.     Let  stand  overnight  covered  in  a 
crock  or  enameled  vessel.    Pack  in  small  sterilized  jars  as 
follows.     First  drain  off  the  vinegar  so  jar  may  be  well 
packed.    Pack  the  relish  in  the  jars,  pressing  it  carefully; 
then  pour  over  it  the  vinegar  which  was  drained  off. 
Paddle  the  jar  thoroughly  to  get  every  bubble  out  and 
allow  the  vinegar  to  displace  all  air  spaces.    Garnish  each 
jar  with  two  quarter-inch  pointed  strips  of  red  pepper 
3  inches  long,  placing  these  strips  vertically  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  seams  of  the  jar. 

3.  Place  in  a  washboiler  sterilizer  with  caps  and  rub- 

1  Recipe  published  by  Sadie  R.  Guseman  of  West  Virginia  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 


RECIPES  FOR  MAKING  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES  237 

/ 

bers  on  loosely.  Heat  the  water  to  boiling  and  boil 
10  min.  Remove  and  seal.  (See  Fig.  15  for  diagram  of 
the  washboiler  sterilizer.) 

(116)  Chutney.1 

1.  Mix  the  following  ingredients: 
12  apples  finely  chopped 

6  green  tomatoes  finely  chopped 

6  small  red  peppers  finely  chopped 

2       "     onions 

}/2  cup  mint  leaves 

4  tablespoonf uls  salt 

1  white  mustard  seed 

2  cups  of  sugar 

2          "   raisins  finely  chopped 
2     "     "   vinegar 
J4  cup  lemon  juice 

2.  Seal  cold  or  let  stand  in  a  cool  place  in  earthen  or 
glass  jar.    No  sterilization  is  necessary. 

(117)  Pickled  Sweet  Peppers. 

1.  12  green  or  ripe  sweet  peppers  (whole) 

2  qts.  cabbage 

4  tablespoonfuls  white  mustard  seed 

3  celery  seed 

4  sweet  peppers  chopped 
1  hot  pepper 

Yz  cup  of  sugar 

2.  Remove  stems  and  seeds  from  sweet  peppers.    Soak 
overnight  in  brine  (1  cup  of  salt  to  1  gal.  of  water). 

3.  Chop  the  cabbage  and  the  4  sweet  peppers  sep- 
arately, add  1  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  each  and  let  stand 
overnight.    Drain.    Mix  with  the  other  ingredients  and 
stuff  the  peppers. 

4.  Place  the  stuffed  peppers  in  jars,  cover  with  hot 
vinegar  and  seal. 

1  From  Circular  35,  Extension  Service,  University  of  Missouri 
Experiment  Station,  by  Carrie  L.  Pancoast. 


238     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(118)  Green  Tomato  Pickle.1 

1.  1  gal.  green  tomatoes 
3/£  doz.  large  onions 

3  cups  of  brown  sugar 

1/2  lemon 

3  pods  of  red  peppers 

3  cups  of  vinegar 

1  tablespoonful  whole  black  pepper 

1  "  "    cloves 

1  "    allspice 

1  celery  seed  crushed 

1  mustard  seed 

1  ground  mustard 

2.  Slice  the  tomatoes  and  onions  very  thin.    Sprinkle 
over  them  3^  cup  of  salt  and  let  stand  overnight  in  a 
crock  or  enameled  vessel.    Drain  well. 

3.  Tie  the  pepper,  cloves,  allspice,  and  celery  seed  in 
a  cheesecloth  bag.    Slice  the  lemon  and  chop  2  pepper 
pods  very  fine.     Add  all  seasoning  except  one  pepper 
pod  to  the  vinegar,  then  add  the  drained  tomato  and 
onions. 

4.  Cook  for  1/2  hour,  stirring  gently  at  intervals  to 
prevent  burning.    Remove  spice  bag  to  prevent  darken- 
ing of  the  product.    Pack  hot  in  small  jars  and  garnish 
with  slender  strips  of  the  red  pepper,  placing  them  ver- 
tically on  opposite  sides  of  the  jar. 

5.  Place  covers  and  rubbers  on  jars  loosely  and  process 
15  min.  at  212°  and  seal.    (See  Fig.  15.) 

(119)  Tomato  Ketchup.2 

1.  Select  ripe  tomatoes  of  deep  red  color.  Cook  the 
tomatoes  thoroughly  and  put  through  a  colander  or 
sieve  to  remove  seeds  and  skins. 

1  From  Extension  Circular  35,  University  of  Missouri  College  of 
Agriculture  by  Carrie  L.  Pancoast. 

2  Published  by  Sadie  R.  Guseman  of  West  Virginia  University. 


RECIPES  FOR  MAKING  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES   239 

2.  For  each  gallon  of  the  pulp  so  obtained  use: 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  salt 

4  "  sugar 

1  powdered  mustard 

1  whole  cloves 

1  allspice 

1  cinnamon 

1  pepper 

2  small  red  peppers  cut  finely 

1  pint  of  vinegar  (preferably  cider  vinegar) 

4  tablespoonfuls  ground  paprika  (not  essential  but 

desirable) 

Tie  the  whole  spices  in  a  bag  of  cheesecloth  and  add  the 
other  ingredients,  except  the  vinegar.  The  paprika 
gives  a  bright  red  color  and  flavor,  but  may  be  omitted. 

3.  Cook  until  almost  thick  enough  (usually  \Y^  hours), 
and  add  the  vinegar.    Continue  cooking  till  thick. 

4.  Pour  hot  into  scalded  bottles  and  cork  with  corks 
sterilized  in  boiling  water  10  min.     The  corks  are  not 
pressed  in  at  first  but  left  loosely  in  the  necks  of  the 
bottles. 

5.  Put  the  bottles  upright  in  a  washboiler  sterilizer 
with   hot   water  one-half  way   up   the   bottles.      Heat 
water  to  boiling  and  boil  1  hour  with  cover  on  the  boiler. 
Drive  corks  into  the  bottles.    Allow  to  cool.    Seal  with 
paraffin  or  wax. 

(120)  Tomato  Paste. 

No  vinegar  is  used  for  this  product  but  it  is  given  here 
in  conjunction  with  tomato  ketchup. 

1.  Boil  ripe  red  tomatoes  until  soft.     Pass  through  a 
screen  to  remove  seeds  and  skins. 

2.  Boil  down  quickly  on  a  stove  to  about  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  ketchup.     Then  place  it  on  the  back  of 
the  stove  or  better  in  a  double  boiler  and  cook  down 
until  it  is  as  thick  as  thick  peanut  butter. 

3.  Pack  hot  in  jars  or  cans. 


240     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

4.  Sterilize  1  hour  at  212°  F.  in  a  washboiler  sterilizer 
and  seal.  This  product  can  be  used  as  a  flavoring  for 
various  dishes,  that  is,  macaroni,  stews,  rice,  beans,  etc., 
in  the  same  way  that  canned  tomatoes  are  used.  It 
may  be  flavored  by  adding  a  button  of  garlic,  a  table- 
spoonful  of  cayenne  pepper  and  two  sweet  red  peppers 
and  salt  to  taste  per  gallon  of  pulp  before  cooking. 
Then  when  thick,  a  little  olive  oil  may  be  beaten  in 
before  packing  in  jars  or  cans.  This  product  is  also 
known  as  tomato  "  conserve  "  by  the  Italians.  It  is 
used  by  them  in  great  quantities. 
(121)  Ripe  Olives. 

1.  Varieties.     Olives  for  pickling  are  grown  exten- 
sively in  California  and  to  a  slight  extent  in  Arizona. 
These  are  the  only  two  states  of  the  United  States  that 
grow  them.     The  most  popular  variety  is  the  Mission 
olive  and  the  next  popular  the  Manzanillo.    Practically 
no  others  are  used  for  ripe  pickles. 

2.  Choose  olives  that  have  become  red  to  black  in 
color.      Underripe  fruit  gives  a  tough,  inferior  product; 
overripe   fruit   may   be   soft.      Olives   are   exceedingly 
bitter  and  must  be  treated  with  lye  to  remove  this. 

3.  Prepare  a  lye  of  3  oz.  of  soda  lye  per  gallon  of  water. 
This  is  1  Ib.  per  5  gals,  or  about  3  tablespoonfuls  per 
gallon. 

4.  Place  the  olives  in  a  stoneware  crock  or  glas  jar 
or  wooden  vessel.    Do  not  use  metal.    Cover  thoroughly 
with  the  lye.    Stir  frequently. 

5.  Once  every  hour  remove  two  or  three  olives  and 
cut  in  half.    Note  whether  the  lye  has  penetrated  through 
the  skin.     This  can  be  determined  by  the  fact  that  the 
lye  will  change  the  color  of  the  skin  and  flesh  of  the  olive. 

6.  When  the  cutting  test  shows  that  the  lye  has  pene- 
trated the  skins  and  a  little  way  into  the  flesh  of  the 
olives,  pour  off  the  lye  into  another  vessel  (usually  the 
lye  will  pentrate  in  3  to  4  hours). 


RECIPES  FOR  MAKING  PICKLES  AND  RELISHES   241 

7.  The  olives  are  now  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  vessel 
in  which  they  were  treated.     Stir  twice  daily  and  leave 
exposed  until  they  are  black  or  dark  in  color.    This  will 
take  from  1  to  5  days.    The  exposure  is  to  bring  back  the 
color  removed  by  the  lye  treatment. 

8.  Return  the  used  lye  to  the  olives  and  leave  until 
the  lye  has  reached  the  pits  of  the  olives,  as  indicated 
by  cutting  a  sample  to  the  pit  with  a  sharp  knife.    Eight 
to  12  hours'  time  will  usually  be  required. 

9.  Pour  off  the  lye.     Cover  the  olives  with  water. 
Change  the  water  twice  daily  until  there  is  no  longer  any 
taste  of  lye.    This  will  usually  require  1  week. 

10.  Make  a  brine  of  5  oz.  (5  tablespoonfuls),  of  salt 
per  gallon  of  water.    Cover  the  olives  with  this  and  heat 
to  boiling.     Pack  hot  in  jars  or  cans.     Sterilize  1  hour 
at  212°  F.  and  seal  (see  Fig.  15  for  appearance  of  a  wash- 
boiler  sterilizer). 

(122)  Green  Olive  Pickles. 

1.  Varieties.     The  Sevillano  and  Ascolano  olive  are 
usually  employed  because  of  their  large  size.     Mission 
and  Manzanillo  may  also  be  used. 

2.  Pick  the  olives  when  full  size  but  hard  green. 

3.  Prepare  a  lye  of  3  oz.  of  soda  lye  per  gallon  of  water. 
(1  Ib.  per  5  gals.).     Place  the  green  olives  in  this  and 
leave  until  the  lye  reaches  the  pits;  as  indicated  by 
cutting  a  sample  to  the  pit.    It  will  take  the  lye  about 
24  hours  to  reach  the  pit. 

4.  Pour  off  and  discard  the  lye.    Cover  the  olives  with 
water.     Change  this  twice  daily  until  the  lye  is  all  re- 
moved; about  1  week. 

5.  Prepare  a  brine  of  9  oz.  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water 
(a  little  more  than  %  Ib.  per  gallon).     Pack  the  olives 
in  a  keg  or  barrel  or  glass  jar.    Fill  completely  with  the 
brine  and  drive  bung  into  keg  or  barrel  or  seal  the  jar. 
Leave  in  a  quiet  place  until  the  proper  flavor  develops. 
This  will  be  in  about  2  months. 


242    HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

6.  Pour  off  the  brine  and  strain  it.  Pack  the  olives  in 
jars.  Heat  the  brine  to  boiling  and  fill  the  jars  with  the 
boiling  hot  brine.  Seal.  No  further  treatment  is  neces- 
sary. 

(123)  Ripe  Olive  Paste. 

1.  Pickle  ripe  olives  as  in  Recipe  121.    Pit  the  olives 
with  a  cherry  pitter.     Grind  them  to  a  paste  in  a  food 
grinder  or  sausage  grinder.    Flavor  with  salt,  red  pepper, 
chopped  green  chili  and  paprika  to  taste. 

2.  Pack  the  paste  in  small  jars.     Sterilize  1%  hours 
at  212°  F.  in  a  washboiler  or  similar  sterilizer  and  seal. 

(124)  Ripe  Olives  Cured  by  the  Salt  Process. 

1.  Choose  black  ripe  olives.    Weigh.    For  each  4  Ibs. 
of  olives  weigh  1  Ib.  of  salt. 

2.  Mix  the  olives  and  salt  thoroughly  in  crock  or 
wooden  vessel.     Cover  with   a  layer  of  salt.     Leave 
until  the  olives  have  lost  most  of  their  bitterness;  about 
a  month  or  six  weeks.     They  will  be  shrivelled  in  ap- 
pearance.   Brush  off  the  salt  and  dip  in  olive  oil.    Pack 
in  jars.    Do  not  sterilize.    These  olives  will  have  a  slight 
bitter  flavor  and  more  "  olive  "  flavor  than  olives  pickled 
by  the  lye  process.    They  are  used  extensively  in  Europe 
and  in  America  by  Italians  and  Greeks.     This  process 
was  used  by  the  ancient  Romans  and  Jews. 

(125)  Dessicated  Olives. 

1.  Pickle  ripe  olives  as  directed  in  Recipe  121. 

2.  Place  in  a  slow  oven  and  dry.    The  olives  will  first 
shrivel  and  become  hard.     Heat  them  until  they  swell 
again  to  their  original  size.    These  olives  will  be  dry  and 
very  light  and  porous.    They  are  an  excellent  "  between 
meal  "  morsel. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

RECIPES   FOR  THE   HOME  PRESERVATION   OF 
MEATS  AND  EGGS 

The  meat  preservation  recipes  given  in  this  chapter 
(with  the  exception  of  the  fish  preservation  recipes), 
were  taken  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  183,  written  by 
A.  Boss.  The  fish  preservation  recipes  were  furnished 
by  H.  Davi,  at  present  with  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Recipes  for  Home  Curing  of  Meats.1 

(126)  Plain  Salt  Pork. 

1.  Prepare  a  clean  hard  wood  barrel  by  thoroughly 
scrubbing  the  inside  with  hot  water  and  washing  soda 
or  a  little  lye  and  .rinsing  thoroughly  with  water.    Sirup 
barrels,  alcohol  or  whisky  barrels  that  are  still  sound 
and  sweet  may  be  used.    A  large  stoneware  crock  is  also 
suitable. 

2.  The  meat  must  be  properly  and  thoroughly  cooled 
because  if  salted  before  the  animal  heat  is  out  the  shrink- 
age of  the  muscles  cause  the  retention  of  injurious  gases, 
giving  an  offensive  odor  to  tha  meat.    It  must  not  be 
frozen  because  the  salt  will  then  not  penetrate.     Or- 
dinarily 24-36  hours'  cooling  after  slaughtering  will  be 
sufficient. 

3.  Cut  the  carcass  in  pieces  about  6  in.  square.    Rub 
each  piece  with  fine  salt  and  pack  closely  in  a  barrel. 
Let  stand  overnight. 

4.  The  next  day  weigh  out  10  Ibs.  of  salt  and  2  oz. 
1  The  recipes  for  the  curing  of  pork  and  beef  were  taken  from 

Farmers'  Bulletin  183,  U.  S.  D.  A.,  by  Andrew  Boss. 

243 


244     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

of  saltpeter  to  each  100  Ibs.  of  meat  and  dissolve  in 
4  gals,  of  water.    Allow  this  brine  to  cool  thoroughly. 

5.  Cover  the  pork  completely  with  this  cold  brine 
and  weight  it  down  with  stones  or  other  heavy  weights 
to  keep  it  completely  immersed.     The  pork  should  be 
kept  in  the  brine  till  used. 
(127)  Corned  Beef. 

1.  Cool  the  carcass  thoroughly  but  do  not  allow  it  to 
freeze.     Cut-  in  pieces  about  5  or  6  in.  square.     The 
cheaper  cuts  such  as  plate,  rump,  cross  ribs,  brisket, 
etc.,  are  ordinarily  used.     Fat  beef  gives  better  results 
than  too  lean  meat. 

2.  Weigh  the  cut  meat  carefully  and  allow  8  Ibs.  of 
salt  to  each  100  Ibs.  of  meat.     Sprinkle  a  layer  of  salt 
%  in.  thick  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.     Pack  in  as 
closely  as  possible  the  cuts  of  meat,  making  a  layer  5  or 
6  in.  thick.    Then  put  on  a  layer  of  salt,  following  that 
with  another  layer  of  meat.     Repeat  until  the  meat 
and  salt  have  all  been  packed  into  the  barrel,  care  being 
used  to  reserve  salt  enough  for  a  good  layer  over  the 
top. 

3.  After  the   package   has  stood  overnight  add   for 
every  100  Ibs.  of  meat,  4  Ibs.  of  sugar,  2  oz.  of  baking 
soda,  and  4  oz.  of  saltpeter  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  tepid 
water.     Three  gallons  more  of  cold  water  should   be 
enough  to  cover  this  quantity.     In  case  more  or  less 
meat  is  to  be  corned,  make  the  brine  in  the  proportion 
given. 

4.  A  loose  board  weighted  down  with  a  heavy  stone 
or  other  weight  should  be  put  on  the  meat  to  hold  it 
down  under  the  brine. 

5.  In  warm  weather  the  brine  may  become  slimy  or 
ropy.    If  this  happens  make  a  new  brine  of  8  Ibs.  of  salt, 
4  Ibs.  of  sugar,  2  oz.  of  baking  soda,  and  4  oz.  of  salt- 
peter to  4  gals,  of  water.    Pour  off  the  old  brine  and  wash 
the  meat  thoroughly.    Add  the  new  brine.    If  the  meat 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  AND  EGGS       245 

is  kept  a  long  time  the  brine  should  be  changed  occa- 
sionally. The  meat  will  usually  be  corned  and  ready 
for  use  in  6  weeks. 

(128)  Sugar  Curing  Hams  and  Bacon  for  Smoking. 

1.  Cut  bacons  in  proper  sizes  and  trim  hams  and 
shoulders  after  meat  has  cooled.    Weigh. 

2.  Then  pack  in  a  barrel  with  the  hams  and  shoulders 
in  the  bottom,  using  strips  of  bacon  to  fill  in  between 
or  to  put  on  top. 

3.  Weigh  out  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  meat,  8  Ibs.  of  salt, 
2  Ibs.  of  brown  sugar  and  2  oz.  of  saltpeter.     Dissolve 
all  in  4  gals,  of  water  and  cover  the  meat  with  the  brine. 
For  summer  use  it  will  be  safer  to  boil  the  brine  and 
allow  it  to  cool  before  using.    Place  a  few  pieces  of  board 
on  the  meat  with  weights  to  keep  the  meat  immersed 
in  the  brine. 

4.  Bacon  strips  should  remain  in  the  brine  4  to  6  weeks 
and  hams  6  to  8  weeks  before  smoking.     In  case  the 
brine  becomes  slimy  or  ropy  remove  it,  wash  the  meat 
and  cover  with  a  fresh  brine  made  as  above. 

(129)  Dry  Curing  of  Pork  for  Smoking. 

1.  Cut  bacons  to  proper  size  and   trim   hams  and 
shoulders.    Weigh. 

2.  For  each  100  Ibs.  of  meat  weigh  out  5  Ibs.  of  salt, 
2  Ibs.   of  granulated  sugar,  and  2  oz.  of  saltpeter  and 
mix  them  thoroughly. 

3.  Rub  the  meat  once  every  3  days  with  a  third  of 
this  mixture.      While  the  meat  is  curing  it  is  best  to 
have  it  packed  in  a  tight  box  or  barrel.     For  sake  of 
convenience  it  is  advisable  to  have  two  barrels  and  to 
transfer  the  meat  from  one  to  the  other  each  time  it  is 
rubbed.     After  the  last  rubbing  the  meat  should  be  let 
lie  in  the  barrel  a  week  or  ten  days,  when  it  will  be  cured 
and  ready  to  smoke.    It  cures  best  in  a  cool  moist  place; 
and  the  preservatives  will  not  penetrate  satisfactorily 
in  a  dry  warm  place. 


246     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(130)  Salting  Beef  for  Drying. 

1.  The   round   is  usually  employed.     Cut  the  fresh 
meat  lengthwise  of  the  muscle  fibers  so  that  the  fibers 
will  be  cut  crosswise  later  for  table  use,  after  drying. 
A  tight  jar  or  barrel  is  necessary  for  curing. 

2.  To  each  100  Ibs.  of  meat  weigh  5  Ibs.  of  salt,  3  Ibs. 
of  sugar,  and  2  oz.  of  saltpeter.    Mix  thoroughly. 

3.  Rub  the  meat  with  a  third  of  the  mixture  and  pack 
tighly  in  a  large  jar  or  cask.    Allow  to  remain  3  days. 
Remove  and  rub  with  a  third  of  the  mixture.     In  re- 
packing, put  at  the  bottom  the  pieces  that  were  on  top 
during  the  first  salting.    Rub  again  with  remaining  third 
of  the  mixture.    Let  stand  3  days.    It  is  then  ready  for 
smoking   and   drying.      The   brine   forming   after  each 
salting  should  not  be  removed  but  the  meat  should  be 
repacked  in  the  liquid  each  time. 

(131)  1  Preservation  of  Fish  by  Salting. 
1.  Select  fish  that  are  fresh. 

.  2.  For  large  fish  such  as  salmon  and  shad,  cut  off  the 
head;  scale,  split  in  two  down  the  back  and  remove  back- 
bone and  visceral  matter.  Clean  fish  thoroughly.  In 
splitting  the  fish  two  pieces  very  much  alike  will  be  ob- 
tained. Make  three  or  ^  four  straight  incisions  on  the 
outside  of  each  piece  so  that  the  salt  will  penetrate. 
Then  cut  the  two  pieces  in  half  crosswise  making  four 
pieces  for  each  fish. 

3.  Make   up  a   saturated   brine   so  that  it  registers 
95°  on  the  salometer  or  simply  prepare  a  brine  of  3  Ibs. 
of  salt  per  gallon  of  water. 

4.  Immerse  the  fish  in  the  brine.     Leave  immersed 
48  hours.    A  wooden  weight  should  be  used  to  keep  the 
fish  completely  submerged. 

5.  Remove  the  fish  and  drain  thoroughly  3  to  4  hours. 
Use  5  or  10  gal.  kegs  for  packing.     Place  the  fish  in  the 
bottom  of  barrel  on  layer  of  salt  with  flesh  side  of  fish 

1  The  Fish  Recipes  were  given  by  H.  Davi. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  AND  EGGS        247 

upward.  Sprinkle  with  a  layer  of  salt.  Add  another 
layer  of  fish;  then  another  layer  of  salt  and  so  on  until 
the  keg  is  full.  Cover  with  a  thin  layer  of  salt.  Cut  a 
circular  false  head  to  fit  inside  the  barrel  and  weight  it 
down  heavily. 

6.  After  a  month  drain  off  the  oily  liquid  and  replace 
with  a  saturated  brine  of  3  Ibs.  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water.     Weight  down  again  and  examine  occasionally. 
The  fish  is  ready  for  use  in  5-6  months.    Crocks  may  be 
used  instead  of  barrels,  but  barrels  seem  to  give  a  better 
flavor. 

7.  Small  Fish.     Small  fish  such  as  herring,  anchovy, 
mackerel,   and   sardines  are  not   cleaned.     Immerse  in 
saturated  brine  of  3  Ibs.  salt  per  gallon  for  24  hours. 
Then  proceed  as  directed  for  large  fish  by  packing  in 
dry  salt. 

8.  Salt.    The  salt  used  should  be  granular,  not  too  fine. 
(132)  Home  Made  Smokehouse. 

A  good  form  of  smokehouse  is  shown  in  Fig.  56.  It 
can  be  made  of  any  size.  If  a  very  small  one  is  to  be 
made,  a  large  dry  goods  box  or  an  old  barrel  may  be 
used.  It  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  pieces  of  meat 
will  hang  clear  of  each  other  and  so  that  the  smoke  will 
pass  freely  around  the  pieces.  The  smoke  should  be 
generated  outside  the  house  and  conducted  to  the  bottom 
of  the  house  by  means  of  an  old  stovepipe  or  covered 
ditch.  If  a  larger  house  is  built  it  should  be  8  to  10  ft. 
high.  One  6  x  8  ft.  will  be  large  enough  for  ordinary 
farm  use.  Ample  ventilation  should  be  arranged  to 
carry  off  the  heat.  Small  openings  under  the  eaves  or 
a  chimney  in  the  roof  will  be  sufficient,  arranged  so 
that  they  may  be  controlled.  A  fire  pot  should  be  built 
outside  the  house  and  the  smoke  conducted  into  the 
house  by  means  of  a  flue  made  of  stovepipe  or  wood. 
If  the  meat  hangs  6  or  7  ft.  from  the  floor  a  fire  may  be 
built  on  the  floor  of  the  house  itself. 


248     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

(133)  Fuel  for  Smoking. 

Green  hickory  or  maple  smothered  in  sawdust  of  the 
same  wood  are  considered  excellent  for  smoking  pork 
and  beef.  Any  hard  wood  is  superior  to  soft  wood. 
Corn  cobs  may  be  used  but  give  off  carbon  that  may 
darken  the  meat.  Spent  tan  bark  from  tanneries  is  the 
best  material  for  smoking  fish.  It  is  also  very  good  for 
other  meats.  The  wood  should  smolder  and  smoke  and 
not  burst  into  flame. 

(134)  Ham  and  Bacon. 

1.  Cure  the  ham  in  brine  or  salt  as  described  in  Re- 
cipes 130  and  131.    Rinse  off  adhering  salt  and  allow  to 
drain.    Hang  in  the  smokehouse. 

2.  Smoke  continuously  for  2  or  3  days  or  smoke  3  or  4 
hours  each  day  for  about  2  weeks.     Use  hard  wood  or 
spent  tan  bark  for  smoke. 

3.  As  soon  as  the  meat  is  sufficiently  smoked,  open 
the  doors  and  windows  of  the  smokehouse  and  allow 
meat  to  cool.     When  thoroughly  cooled,  remove  and 
wrap  each  piece  closely  in  paper.     Put  the  wrapped 
pieces  in  strong  sacks  and  tie  well  at  the  top.     The 
sacks  should  be  hung  where  they  are  to  remain  until  the 
meat  is  used.    The  sacks  should  be  coated  with  a  thick 
paste  of  lime,  water  and  enough  glue  to  make  the  mixture 
stick.     Do  not  stack  in  piles.     Hang  so  pieces  do  not 
touch. 

(135)  Dried  Smoked  Beef. 

1.  Prepare  the  beef  by  salt  curing  according  to  Re- 
cipe 132.     Rinse  off  adhering  salt  and  hang  in  smoke 
house.    Allow  to  drain  several  hours. 

2.  Smoke  for  about  3  days.    Then  hang  in  the  kitchen 
or  a  dry  attic  and  allow  to  dry  until  sufficiently  dry  for 
slicing. 

(136)  Smoking  Large  Fish.1 

1.  Use  fresh  fish  only.     Scale.     Clean.     Cut  in  half 
1  The  Fish  Recipes  were  given  by  H.  Davi. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  AND  EGGS       249 

down  the  back  and  remove  backbone.     Cut  in  pieces 
about  6  in.  long. 

2.  Prepare  a  saturated  solution  of  salt  (3  Ibs.  per  gallon 
of  water).    Place  fish  in  this  brine  for  24  hours,  keeping 
them  immersed  by  wooden  floats. 

3.  Remove  from  brine  and  allow  to  drain  4  hours. 

4.  Construct  a  smokehouse  as  previously  described 
but  make  a  number  of  wire  netting  trays  that  may  be 
supported  in  some  way  in  the  smokehouse.    They  may  be 
supported  on  cleats,  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  house  if 
it  is  small,  or  by  wires  from  the  rafters  if  the  house  is 
large.    A  number  of  trays  may  be  placed  one  above  the 
other  if  a  space  of  a  few  inches  is  allowed  between  each 
pair.     Lay  the  fish  on  these  wire  netting  or  wire  screen 
trays. 

5.  Smoke  the  fish  10  to  12  hours  with  tan  bark  smoke. 
Obtain  this  from  a  tannery.      If  this  cannot  be  obtained 
use  any  hard  wood  chips  smothered  in  hard  wood  sawdust. 

6.  Remove  the  fish  and  dry  in  the  sun  3  to  5  days.    If 
the  sun  is  not  shining,  dry  in  a  very  slow  oven  or  any 
form  of  fruit  dryer.    (See  descriptions  of  artificial  dryers, 
Chap.  XII,  par.  68.)     Wrap  in  paraffined  paper  and 
pack  in  boxes  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

(137)  Smoking  Small  Fish. 

1.  Cut  off  heads.     Scale  and  clean.     Split  so  that 
halves  just  hold  together. 

2.  Store  in  brine  of  3  Ibs.  salt  per  gallon  of  water  for 
20  hours.    Remove  and  drain  4  hours. 

3.  Smoke  8  hours,  using  spent  tan  bark  if  obtainable. 

4.  Dry  in  the  sun  2  to  3  days,  or  in  artificial  dryer. 
Wrap  in  paraffined  paper  and  pack. 

(138)  Drying  Fish. 

1.  Place  the  fish  in  a  brine  of  3  Ibs.  of  salt  per  gallon  of 
water  as  directed  in  Recipe  133.    Drain  5  hours. 

2.  Dry  several  days  in  the  sun  or  in  artificial  evapora- 
tors until  most  of  the  moisture  is  removed.     Wrap  in 


250     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

paper  or   press  into   bricks   and   wrap.     Store  in  dry 
place. 

(139)  Dried  Beef  and  Venison  ("  Jerkey  "). 
This  can  only  be  made  in  a  dry  arid  climate. 

1.  Cut  in  strips  about  2  in.  wide  and  J^  in.  thick.    Rub 
with  a  little  salt  and  sprinkle  heavily  with  pepper  to 
repel  insects. 

2.  Hang  strips  on  a  clothesline  or  long  wire  or  string  in 
the  sun  till  dry.    Pack  in  sacks. 

(140)  Preservation  of  Eggs  in  Water  Glass. 

1.  To  each  pint  of  water  glass  obtained  from  a  grocery 
or  drug  store,  add  9  pints  of  water.    Pack  the  eggs  in  a 
stoneware  crock,  tin  can,  or  wooden  vessel.    Fill  with  the 
water  glass  and  cover  to  prevent  evaporation.    Store  in  a 
cool  place. 

2.  Alternative  Method.    Prepare  a  solution  of  1  cup  of 
water  glass  to  2  cups  of  water.     Dip  the  eggs  in  this 
solution  and  allow  to  dry  on  a  layer  of  flour  or  bran.    Dip 
again  the  next  day  and  allow  to  dry  as  before.    Pack  in 
bran  and  store  in  a  cool  place.     Or  pack  in  dry  salt. 
This  is  preferable  to  bran. 

3.  Caution.     Use  only  fresh  eggs  and  if  possible  non- 
fertile  eggs.    In  method  (2)  use  clean,  very  dry  bran, 

(141)  Preservation  of  Eggs  in  Lime  and  Salt.1 

1.  Slack  2  Ibs.  of  lime  in  a  small  quantity  of  water. 
Mix  with  2  gals,  of  water  and  add  1  Ib.  of  salt.     Stir 
thoroughly  and  allow  to  settle. 

2.  Pour  off  the  clear  solution  and  use  it  for  the  preser- 
vative.   This  will  be  sufficient  for  about  12  doz.  eggs. 

1  This  method  is  given  by  J.  B.  Hayes  and  F.  E.  Mussehl  in  Cir- 
cular 74,  Agricultural  Extension  Service,  University  of  Wisconsin. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
RECIPES  FOR  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Most  dairy  products  are  best  made  on  a  factory  scale. 
This  is  especially  true  of  cheese.  For  this  reason  only  one 
recipe  for  hard  cheese  has  been  given.  This  recipe  has 
been  recommended  by  the .  University  of  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  as  being  the  most  suitable  for  farm 
use.  The  recipe  given  for  cottage  cheese  is  one  of  the 
most  approved  and  easily  followed.  Recipe  146  deals 
with  the  preservation  of  butter  by  salting. 
(142)  Gouda  Cheese.1 

This  cheese  is  made  from  whole  sweet  milk.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  will  make  10  Ibs.  of  finished 
cheese.  It  is  best  adapted  to  home  manufacture  of  the 
100  varieties  of  cheese  on  the  American  market.  No 
special  equipment  is  necessary. 

1.  The    Tools.     An  ordinary   washboiler  serves  very 
well  as  a  vat.    The  curd  may  be  heated  by  placing  the 
boiler  on  the  edge  of  the  kitchen  stove.    The  curd  is  best 
cut  with  many  bladed  knives  called  curd  knives,  made  for 
the  purpose,  one  with  vertical  and  one  with  horizontal 
knives;  but  the  cutting  may  be  done  with  a  common  wire 
bread  toaster  or  even  with  a  coil  of  hay  wire. 

2.  The  wooden  mold  should  be  made  like  a  strong  box, 
about  10  x  8  in.   inside  measurement.     The  top  and 
bottom  should  be  loose  and  small  enough  to  fall  down 
through  the  mold;  or  in  other  words,  to  follow  down 
when  the  cheese  is  pressed. 

The  press  is  made  of  a  cleat  nailed  against  the  wall,  a 
box  in  front,  and  a  2  x  4  or. pole  10  or  12  ft.  long  for  a 
lever.    A  pail  of  stones  makes  an  excellent  weight. 
1  R.  M.  Washburn.     Special  Bui.  12,  Agr.  Extension,  Univ.  Minn. 

251 


252     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

An  accurate  thermometer  is  needed  for  uniform  work. 
The  floating  dairy  kind  is  most  convenient,  but  an 
ordinary  weather  thermometer  may  be  used. 

3.  The  Milk.     The  best  cheese  is  made  from  clean, 
fresh,  morning's  milk,  before  it  is  4  hours  old.    If  night's 
milk  is  used  it  should  either  be  made  up  at  once  or  be 
thoroughly  cooled   after  milking.     Milk   that  is  even 
slightly  turned  will  make  a  quick  acting,  hard,  dry  cheese. 
If  the  milk  is  not  clean  or  is  too  old  the  cheese  is  likely  to 
become  gassy  and  ill  flavored. 

4.  The  Rennet.     The  most  practical  rennet  for  farm 
use  is  that  in  tablet  form,  obtainable  from  any  creamery 
supply  company.     One  No.  2  fresh  rennet  tablet  will 
thicken  12  gals,  or  100  Ibs.  of  milk.    When  the  tablets  are 
old,  more  must  be  used.     Just  before  being  used,  the 
tablets  should  be  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  1  tablet  per 
pint  of  cold  water.    Hot  water  will  kill  the  rennet.    Ren- 
net is  improved  by  an  ounce  of  salt  to  a  pint  of  water, 
especially  if  it  must  be  held  for  several  minutes  after 
being  dissolved. 

5.  Heating.    Heat  the  milk  in  the  washboiler  to  88°  F. ; 
not  over  90°  F.  and  not  under  86°  F. 

6.  Setting.    The  rennet  solution  at  the  rate  of  1  tablet 
per  12  gals,  is  then  added  and  thoroughly  stirred  for 
2  min.    The  surface  should  be  stirred  for  another  2  min. 
to  prevent  the  cream  from  separating  from  the  milk  and 
being  lost. 

7.  Holding.    The  mixture  is  then  covered  and  allowed 
to  stand  at  88°  F.  until  the  curd  has  become  thick.    This 
should  require  not  less  than  12  nor  more  than  18  min. 

8.  Cutting.     The  curd  is  ready  to  cut  when  it  has 
coagulated  enough  to  cause  it  to  break  clear  over  the 
forefinger  when  the  finger  is  inserted  into  the  curd  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  lifted  upward  and  touched  on  the  top  of  the 
thumb.     The  curd  is  cut  into  small  cubes  to  allow  the 
whey  to  escape  more  quickly  and  perfectly.     Therefore 


RECIPES  FOR  DAIRY  PRODUCTS  253 

the  curd  lumps  or  cubes  should  be  cut  in  uniform  size  and 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  across. 

9.  Stirring.    Stirring  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  uniform 
removal  of  the  whey  as  the  curd  continually  settles  and 
mats  into  large  masses  unless  broken  up  by  hand  or  by  a 
small  rake.    The  curd  should  be  stirred  gently  at  inter- 
vals until  it  is  sufficiently  cooked. 

10.  Heating.    After  the  cutting  and  the  first  thorough 
stirring,   the   curd   should   be   slowly   heated   to  about 
100°  F.    This  may  be  done  by  edging  the  boiler  back  on 
the  stove  or  by  pouring  clean  hot  water  directly  into  the 
boiler  or  vat.     The  whey  may  be  dipped  off  and  more 
hot    water    added    until    the   desired    temperature    is 
reached. 

11.  Dipping  and  Draining.     When  the  curd  has  be- 
come so  firm  that  a  handful  firmly  squeezed,  will  fall 
apart  when  released,  it  is  ready  to  be  removed  and  put  to 
press.    Draining  can  be  done  by  straining  through  cheese- 
cloth. 

12.  Pressing.     When  the  whey  and  water  have  been 
drained  off,  the  granules  of  curd  are  firmly  pressed  into 
the  mold  or  form.    If  the  wooden  form  is  used,  a  clean 
piece  of  cheesecloth  should  be  first  laid  over  and  pressed 
down  into  the  box  and  then  the  curd  pressed  into  all 
corners.     When  the  form  is  filled  the  cloth  should  be 
folded  over  it,  the  follower  head  inserted,  and  the  whole 
put  to  press,  first  with  little  pressure  and  later  with  more. 
If  the  metal  form  is  used,  the  curd  is  first  pressed  in 
without  the  cloth  to  permit  the  water  to  escape  promptly, 
but  upon  being  dressed  it  is  covered  with  thick,  firmly 
woven  cloth  bandages. 

13.  Dressing.    After  the  cheese  has  been  pressed  for  an 
hour  or  two  it  should  be  taken  out  and  turned  over  in  the 
form,  all  wrinkles  in  the  bandage  being  smoothed  out. 
It  should  then  be  returned  to  the  press  and  should  re- 
main under  heavy  pressure  for  half  a  day  or  even  until 


254     HOME  AND  FARM  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

the  next  morning,  when  it  should  be  taken  out  and  put 
into  salt  as  directed  in  the  next  step. 

14.  Salting.    Salting  is  best  done  by  floating  the  young 
cheese  in  brine  made  as  strong  as  possible  (3^  Ibs.  of 
salt  per  gallon  of  water).     Dry  salt  is  sprinkled  on  the 
top  of  the  cheese  and  every  12  hours  the  cheese  is  turned 
over  in  the  water  and  resalted.    This  is  continued  from 
30  to  40  hours.    It  is  then  wiped  dry  and  stored  in  a  cool 
place. 

15.  Paraffining.    By  the  old  system  the  cheese  was 
greased  to  keep  the  moisture  in  and  rubbed  firmly  by 
hand  every  day  to  keep  off  mold,  but  a  better  way  is  to 
allow  the  cheese  to  become  slightly  dry  and  then  dip  into 
hot  paraffin.     A  kettle  filled  with  water,  with  half  an 
inch  of  paraffin  on  the  water,  brought  to  a  boil,  makes  an 
excellent  paraffining  tank.     If  the  parafin  is  too  hot,  it 
will  draw  the  fat  out  of  the  cheese  and  will  not  cling  well. 
If  the  cheese  is  too  moist  the  paraffin  will  not  cling  well. 
Melted   paraffin  may  also  be  painted  on  the  cheese. 

16.  A  cellar  or  other  fairly  cool  place  is  best  for  curing. 
If  too  warm,  the  cheese  will  ripen  too  fast  and  may 
develop  an  off  flavor,  while  if  too  cold  it  will  work  too 
slowly.     A  temperature  of  about  60°  F.  is  very  good. 
Cheese  made  in  this  way  should  be  ready  to  eat  in  from 
three  to  eight  weeks.     It  should  keep  for  six  months  or 
more. 

(143)  Cottage  Cheese. 

1.  Souring  the  Milk.    Allow  sweet  clean  milk  to  stand 
in  a  warm  kitchen  until  thick  and  "  clabbered." 

2.  Cutting.    Cut  in  small  cubes  with  a  case  knife.    In 
making  large  quantities  it  is  well  to  use  regular  curd 
knives.    Allow  to  stand  undisturbed  for  several  minutes 
or  until  the  whey  has  been  fairly  well  forced  out. 

3.  Heating.     Heat  with  gentle  stirring  to  93-98°  F. 
Allow  to  stand  at  this  temperature  until  it  is  fairly  firm 
to  the  touch.    Then  it  should  be  drained. 


RECIPES  FOR  DAIRY  PRODUCTS  255 

4.  Draining.    Pour  into  a  bag  of  cheesecloth  and  allow 
to  drain  an  hour  or  two. 

5.  Finishing.    Add  salt  to  taste.    Cream  may  be  added 
if  desired  and  also  white  pepper.    Chopped  pimentoes  or 
red  peppers  may  be  added.     Paprika  may  also  be  used 
and  adds  very  much  to  the  flavor.     Mix  with  a  large 
spoon  or  silver  fork.    The  cheese  should  be  used  the  day 
on  which  it  is  made. 

(144)  The  Preservation  of  Butter  by  Salt. 

1.  By  Dry  Salt.    Use  fresh  sweet  butter.    Weigh  care- 
fully.   Weigh  1  Ib.  of  salt  for  each  10  Ibs.  of  butter.    Work 
it  in  thoroughly.    Pack  tightly  in  crocks  and  cover  with 
salt.     Store  in  a  cold  place.     When  the  butter  is  to  be 
used,  freshen  it  by  working  it  in  cold  water. 

2.  In  Brine.    To  each  10  Ibs.  of  butter,  add  ^  Ib.  of 
salt  and  work  in  thoroughly.    Make  a  brine  of  3^  Ibs.  of 
salt  per  gal.    Pack  the  butter  down  in  this  brine  and  store 
in  a  cool  place.    Keep  the  butter  immersed  in  the  brine 
with  weights  if  necessary.    Before  use,  freshen  by  work- 
ing in  cold  water. 


APPENDIX 

Hydrometer  Table  for  Salt,  Sugar,  and  Lye  Solutions 

The  following  table  can  be  used  to  find  the  equivalents 
of  the  various  systems  used  in  measuring  the  amounts  of 
salt,  sugar,  and  lye  in  water  solutions.  The  table  is  also 
valuable  for  use  in  the  preparation  of  solutions  of  these 
substances  of  desired  strengths.  For  example:  Suppose 
a  5%  salt  solution  is  desired.  Six  and  seven-tenths  (ap- 
proximately 6%)  oz.  of  salt  would  be  added  to  each  gallon 
of  water;  this  figure  being  found  by  consulting  the  figure 
in  column  3  under  "Ounces  per  Gallon/7  opposite  5  in 
column  2. 

If  a  Baume  hydrometer  is  in  use,  the  corresponding 
Balling  degrees  or  per  cent  sugar  can  be  found  in  column  4. 

The  table  has  been  arranged  by  J.  R.  Zion  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California. 


257 


258 


APPENDIX 


Relation  of  Specific  Gravity,  Salt,  Sugar  and  Soda  Lye 

RELATION  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  SALT,  SUGAR,  AND  SODA  LYE 


SdU 

Sugar 

Soda  Lye 

Specific 
Gravity 

Baume  or 
Per  Cent 
Salt 

Oz.  per 
Gal1 

Balling  or 
Per  Cent 
Sugar 

Oz.  per 
Gal* 

Per 
Cent 

Oz.  per 
Gal.1 

1.007 

1 

1.3 

1.8 

2.3 

0.5 

0.7 

1.014 

2 

2.6 

3.6 

4.8 

1.2 

1.5 

1.022 

3 

4.0 

5.5 

7.5 

1.8 

2.4 

1.029 

4 

5.3 

7.2 

9.9 

2.5 

3.2 

1.036 

5 

6.7 

9.0 

12.6 

3.1 

4.1 

1.045 

6 

8.1 

10.8 

15.5 

3.7 

5.0 

1.052 

7 

9.6 

12.6 

18.5 

4.5 

6.0 

1.060 

8 

11.1 

14.5 

21.7 

5.2 

7.0 

1.067 

9 

12.7 

16.2 

24.7 

5.8 

8.0 

1.075 

10 

14.2 

18.1 

28.3 

6.6 

9.0 

1.083 

11 

15.8 

19.8 

31.6 

7.3 

10.1 

1.091 

12 

17.5 

21.7 

35.5 

8.1 

11.3 

1.100 

13 

19.1 

23.5 

39.3 

8.8 

12.4 

1.108 

14 

20.8 

25.3 

43.3 

9.5 

13.5 

1.116 

15 

22.6 

27.2 

47.8 

10.3 

14.7 

1.125 

16 

24.4 

29.1 

52.5 

11.1 

15.9 

1.134 

17 

26.2 

30.9 

57.2 

11.9 

17.3 

1.142 

18 

28.1 

32.7 

62.2 

12.7 

18.6 

1.152 

19 

30.0 

34.6 

67.7 

13.5 

19.9 

1.162 

20 

32.0 

36.5 

73.6 

14.3 

21.3 

1.171 

21 

34.0 

38.3 

79.5 

15.1 

22.7 

1.180 

22 

36.1 

40.1 

85.7 

16.0 

24.2 

1.190 

23 

38.2 

42.0 

92.7 

16.9 

25.7 

1.200 

24 

40.4 

43.9 

100.2 

17.8 

27.3 

1.210 

25 

42.7 

45.9 

108.6 

18.7 

29.0 

1.220 

26 

45.0 

47.7 

116.7 

19.6 

30.7 

1.231 

27 

47.3 

49.6 

126.0 

20.6 

32.5 

1.241 

28 

49.8 

51.6 

136.5 

21.5 

34.2 

1.252 

29 

52.3 

53.5 

147.3 

22.5 

36.1 

1.263 

30 

54.9 

55.4 

159.0 

23.5 

38.0 

1.274 

31 

57.5 

57.3 

171.8 

24.5 

39.9 

1.285 

32 

60.2 

59.3 

186.5 

25.5 

41.9 

1.297 

33 

63.0 

61.2 

201.9 

26.6 

44.1 

1.308 

34 

66.0 

63.2 

219.8 

27.6 

46.3 

1.320 

35 

68.0 

65.2 

240.0 

28.8 

48.7 

1.332 

36 

72.0 

67.2 

282.2 

30.0 

51.1 

1.345 

37 

75.2 

69.2 

287.6 

31.2 

53.7 

1  Ounces  of  material  to  be  added  to  one  gallon  of  water. 


APPENDIX  259 

Formula  for  Soldering  Fluid 

Place  granulated  zinc  in  an  open  glass  fruit  jar  or  other 
open  glass  container  and  add  approximately  three  times 
its  volume  of  strong  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid  and 
allow  to  stand  for  about  one  hour.  Strain  off  the  solution 
from  the  undissolved  zinc  through  a  cloth.  Add  an 
equal  volume  of  water  to  the  solution.  .It  is  then  ready 
to  use.  It  may  be  used  repeatedly  until  it  becomes  too 
weak  to  act  satisfactorily. 

Labeling  Laws 

Most  states  have  enacted  laws  that  make  it  compulsory 
to  state  on  the  label  in  prominent  sized  type  the  net  con- 
tents of  all  cans,  bottles,  and  other  packages  containing 
foods  offered  for  sale.  The  net  contents  are  to  be  indi- 
cated in  ounces  or  pounds  if  the  food  is  solid :  and  as  fluid 
ounces,  pints,  quarts,  or  gallons  if  the  product  is  liquid. 
By  measuring  or  weighing  the  contents  of  several  of  the 
containers  after  they  have  been  processed,  etc.,  a  safe 
minimum  for  the  net  contents  may  be  established  and 
labels  designed  accordingly. 

The  label  must  also  state  plainly  the  kind  of  product 
in  the  container  and  the  contents  must  correspond  to  this 
declaration.  Adulterants,  antiseptics,  or  artificial  colors 
if  used,  must  also  be  declared  on  the  label. 

If  these  points  are  borne  in  mind,  no  trouble  with  the 
pure  food  authorities  will  arise  from  the  sale  of  good 
grades  of  home  prepared  food-stuffs. 

Federal  Standards  for  Vinegar  U.  S.  D.  A. 

"  1.  Vinegar,  cider  vinegar,  apple  vinegar,  is  the  product 
made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  acetous  fermenta- 
tions of  the  juice  of  apples;  is  laevo  rotary,  and  contains 
in  one  hundred  cubic  centimeters  not  less  than  four  (4) 
grams  of  acetic  acid,  and  not  less  than  one  and  six-tenths 


260  APPENDIX 

grams  of  apple  solids,  of  which  not  more  than  fifty  (50) 
per  cent  are  reducing  sugars. 

2.  Wine  vinegar,  grape  vinegar,  contains  in  one  hun- 
dred cubic  centimeters  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of 
acetic  acid,  and  not  less  than  one  gram  of  grape  solids." 

Note:  Four  grams  acetic  acid  per  one  hundred  cubic 
centimeters  corresponds  to  40  grains  on  the  Leo  Acid 
Tester.  Vinegar  for  sale  should  test  at  least  45  on  the 
Leo  Tester. 

References  on  Home  Canning 

1.  Home  Canning  by  the  One-Period  Cold-Pack  Method. 

O.  H.  Benson.     Farmers'   Bui.   839.    U.  S.   D.   A. 
1917. 

2.  Home  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables.     Ola  Powell. 
Farmers7  Bui.  853.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1917. 

3.  Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home.     J.  F.  Breazeale. 
U.  S.  D.  A.    Farmers'  Bui.  359.    1909. 

4.  Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm.    H.  P.  Gould  and  W.  F. 
Fletcher.    Farmers'  Bui.  426.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1915. 

5.  Canning  Tomatoes  at  Home  and  in  Club  Work.    J.  F. 
Breazeale  and  O.  H.  Benson.     Farmers'  Bui.   521. 
1916.    U.  S.  D.  A. 

6.  Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  Jellies.    Maria  Parloa. 
Farmers'  Bui.  203.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1904. 

7.  Some    Common    Edible    and    Poisonous    Mushrooms. 
Flora  W.  Patterson  and  Vera  K.  Charles.    Farmers' 
Bui.  796.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1917.    (Contains  Method  of 
Canning.) 

8.  Home  and  Farm  Canning.    W.  V.  Cruess.     Circular 

158.     University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 
1917. 

9.  Illustrated    Food    Preservation    Leaflet.    I.  Canning 
Fruits  and  Vegetable^.     W.  V.  Cruess.     University 
California  Experiment  Station,    1917. 

10.  A   Canning  Business  for  the  Farm  Home.     Claribel 


APPENDIX  261 

Nye  and  Bessie  Austin.     Cornell  Reading  Course, 
Vol.  II,  No.  47.    1913. 

11.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Canning.    Cornell  Reading 
Course,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  69.     Flora  Rose  and  O.  H. 
Benson.    1914. 

12.  Food  Preservation:   A   National   Challenge.     Cornell 
Reading  Course.    Lesson  113.    June,  1917. 

13.  Canning,     Preserving,    Pickling.      States    Relations 
Service.    Doc.  22.    Ext.  S.  No.  A-81.    U.  S.  D.  A. 

14.  Canning  Equipment.    Cornell  Reading  Course.    Vol. 

Ill,  No.  71.    Sept.  1,  1914. 

15.  The  Marketing  of  Country  Club  Products.    L.  B.  Flohr. 
Markets  Doc.  5,  Sept.  10,  1917.    U.  S.  D.  A. 

16.  National    Canning    Recipes.      Published    by    North- 

western Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Eau  Claire,  Wis. 

17.  Home  Canning  of  Fruit  and   Vegetables.     Mary  E. 

Cresswell.     Georgia   State   College   of   Agriculture. 
Bui.  107.    1917. 

18.  Home  Canning.    Anna  M.  Turley.    Oregon  Agr.  Col- 

lege Extension  Bui.  204.    1917. 

19.  Canning  and  Preserving  with  4~H  Recipes.     Exten- 
sion Circular  No.  11.     (Revised.)     North  Carolina 
Agr.  College.    1917. 

20.  Home  Canning.    F.  J.   Crider.     Bui.   26.     Farmers' 

Reading  Course  of  Clemson  College,  South  Carolina. 
1917. 

21.  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables  on  the  Farm.     C.  C. 
Vincent.    Idaho  Expt.  Station.    Bui.  82,  1915. 

22.  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables.     J.   C.  Price.    Ala- 
bama Polytechnic  Institute  Extension  Circular  12. 
1917. 

23.  Home  Canning.    F.  E.  Miller.    Bui.  12.     1914.    Vir- 

ginia Truck  Experiment  Station. 

24.  Home  Canning  by  the  Cold  Pack  Method.    Naomi  L. 

Newburn.      Illinois   Agr.    Expt.    Station    Extension 
Circular  10,  1917. 


262  APPENDIX 

25.  Home   Canning.     Extension   Circular  No.   6.     Ver- 
mont Agr.  Extension  Service.    1917. 

26.  The  Farm  Vegetable  Garden.  •  Leroy  Cady  (with  chap- 
ter on  Canning  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh). »  Ext.  Bui.  17. 
Minnesota  Agr.  Expt.  Station.    1916. 

27.  Preservation  of  Fruits,   Vegetables  and  Meats.     Ger- 
trude McCheyne  and  J.  C.  Hogenson.     Circular  18. 
Utah  Agr.  College. 

References  on  Commercial  Canning 

1.  Methods    Followed    in   the    Commercial    Canning   cf 
Foods.     A.  W.  Bitting.    U.  S.  D.  A.    Dept.  Bui.  196. 
1916. 

2.  Preliminary  Bulletin  on   Canning.     A.   W.   Bitting. 
Bui.  4.     National  Canners'  Assn.  Research  Labora- 
tory.   1915. 

3.  Bulletins  1,  2,  3,  and  5-14  of  Research  Laboratory  of 
National  Canners'  Assn.    Washington,  D.  C. 

4.  Sanitary  Control  of  Tomato  Canning  Factories.    B.  J. 
Howard  and  H.  Stephenson.    Dept.  Bui.  509.    U.  S. 
D.  A.    1917. 

5.  Canning  of  Peas.    A.  W.  Bitting.    Bui.  125.     U.  S. 
D.  A.    Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

6.  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Products.    C.  I.  Lewis  and  W.  S. 
Brown.    Oregon  Agr.  College  Bui.  128.    1914. 

7.  Art  of  Canning  and  Preserving.    J.  Pacrette. 

8.  American  Commercial  Methods  of  Manufacturing  Pre- 

serves, Pickles,  Canned  Foods,  etc.    C.  A.  Shinklc. 

9.  Les   Conserves   de   Fruits.     A.    Rolet.     Paris,    1912. 

(French.) 

10.  Canning  with  Bacteriological  Technique.    E.  W.  Duck- 
wall.    1905. 

11.  Western  Canner  and  Dried  Fruit  Packer.     Chicago. 

(Journal  devoted  to  Canning.) 

12.  The  Canning  Trade.     Baltimore.     (Journal  on  Can- 
ning.) 


APPENDIX  263 

References  on  Drying  Fruits  and  Vegetables 

1.  The  Evaporation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables.    J.  S.  Cald- 
well.    Bui.  148,  Washington  State  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 
1917. 

2.  The  Home  Drying  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables.    J.  S.  Cald- 
well.    Extension  Bui.  Series  I,  No.  27.    Washington 
State  Agr.  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

3.  Evaporation  of  Apples.     J.  S.  Caldwell.     Bui.   131, 
Washington  State  Agr.  Expt.  Station. .  1916. 

4.  Commercial  Evaporation  and  Drying  of  Fruits..    J.  H. 
Beattie  and  H.  P.  Gould.    Farmers'  Bui.  903^    U.  S. 
D.  A.    1917. 

5.  Drying  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  the  Home.    Farmers 

Bui.  841.    U.  S.  D.  A.     1917. 

6.  Home  Drying  Manual  for  Vegetables  and  Fruits.    1917. 

Published  by  National  Emergency  Food  Garden 
Commission  210-220,  Maryland  Bldg.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  1917. 

7.  Evaporation  of  Apples.    H.  P.  Gould.    Farmers'  Bui. 

291.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1915. 

8.  The  Drying  of  Fruits  and   Vegetables.     Pearl  Mae- 
Donald.      Pennsylvania   Expt.    Station.     Extension 
Circular  61.    1917. 

9.  Drying  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  for  Home  Consumption. 

North  Carolina  Extension  Circular  50.    1917. 

10.  Control  of  Dried  Fruit  Insects  in  California.     W.  B. 
Parker.    U.  S.  D.  A.    Dept.  Bui.  235.    1915. 

11.  Practical  Methods  of  Drying  Fruits  and   Vegetables. 

Connecticut  Agr.  College  Extension  Service  Form  67. 
1917. 

12.  Drying  Fruits  and  Vegetables.    Addie  D.  Root.    Mis- 

souri Agr.  College  Extension  Circular  23.    1917. 


264  APPENDIX 

Fruit  Juices 

1.  Grape  Juice.    F.  T.  Bioletti.    Circular  108.    University 

California  Expt.  Station.    1913. 

2.  Manufacture  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice  in  California. 

W.  V.  Cruess  and  C.  J.  Hintze.  Journal  Industrial 
and  Engineering  Chemistry.  April,  1914.  Page 
302. 

3.  Home  Uses  for  Muscadine  Grapes.     Charles  Dearing. 

Farmers'  Bui.  859.    1917. 

4.  Bottles  for  Fruit  Juices.    (Reprint  from  Press  Bulletin.) 

Connecticut  Agr.  College.    1917. 

5.  Unfermented  Apple  Juice.    H.  C.  Gore.     U.  S.  D.  A. 

Bureau  Chemistry  Bui.  118.    1908. 

6.  Manufacture  and    Use  of  Unfermented   Grape  Juice. 

G.  C.  Husmann.    U.  S.  D.  A.     Farmers'  Bui.  644. 

1915.  ; 

7.  Studies  on  Fruit  Juices.     H.  C.  Gore.     U.  S.  D.  A. 

Dept.  Bui.  241.    1915. 

8.  Loganberry  By-Products.    C.  I.  Lewis  and  F.  R.  Brown. 

Oregon  Agr.  College.    Bui.  117.    1914. 

Sirups 

1.  Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture.     A.   H.   Bryan.     U.   S. 

D.  A.    Farmers'  Bui.  477.    1912. 

2.  The  Production  of  Maple  Sirup  and  Sugar.     A.   H. 

Bryan.    U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers'  Bui.  516.    1912. 

3.  Sugar  Beet  Sirup.    C.  O.  Townsend  and  H.  C.  Gore. 

U.  S.  D.  A.    Farmers'  Bui.  823.    1917. 

4.  Fruit  Products.     W.  W.  Chenoweth.     Massachusetts 

Agr.  College  Extension  Circular,  46,    1917. 

5.  Muscadine  Grape  Sirup.    Charles  T.  Dearing.    U.  S. 

D.  A.    Farmers'  Bui.  758.    1916. 

6.  Apple  Sirup  and   Concentrated   Cider.     H.   C.   Gore. 

Year  Book,  separate  639.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1914. 


APPENDIX  265 

Jellies 

1.  Principles  of  Jelly  Making.    N.  E.  Goldwaithe.     Bui. 

31,  University  Illinois.    Also  Cornell  Reading  Course, 
Series  No.  3,  Vol.  I,  No.  15.    1912. 

2.  Jellies  and  Marmalades  from  Citrus  Fruits.     W.  V. 

Cruess.    Circular  146,  University  of  California  Expt. 
Station.    1916. 

3.  Jellies,  Jams,  and  Marmalades.     Connecticut  College 

Emergency  Food  Series  No.  17,  1917. 

4.  Fruit  Juices  and  Jellies.    W.  V.  Cruess.    Illustrated 

Methods  of  Food  Preservation.     University  of  Cali- 
fornia Expt.  Station.    1917. 

5.  Jelly  Investigations.    W.  V.  Cruess  and  J.  B.  McNair. 

Journal     Industrial     and     Engineering     Chemistry, 
p.  417,  May,  1916. 

Vinegar  and  Pickles 

1.  Vinegar  from  Waste  Fruits.    W.  V.  Cruess.    Bui.  287, 
University  California  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

2.  Grape  Vinegar.    F.  T.  Bioletti.    Bui.  227,  University 

California  Expt.  Station. 

3.  A   Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Pure  Apple  Cider 

Vinegar   by  Quick  Process.    Hydraulic    Press    Mfg. 
Co.    Mt.  Gilead,  Ohio.    Circular  22. 

4.  Home  Made  Vinegar.    F.  T.  Bioletti  and  W.  V.  Cruecs. 

Leaflet  University  California  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

5.  Making  Cider  Vinegar  al  Home.    F.  H.  Hall  and  L.  L. 
Van  Slyke.     Bui.  258.     N.  Y.  Agr.  Expt.  Station, 
Geneva,  N.  Y.    1904. 

6.  Pickles  and  Relishes.     Carrie  Pancoast.     Extension 

Circular  35.    University  Missouri.    1917. 

7.  Pickles,     Chowchow,     Chile    Sauce,    Sauerkraut,    etc. 
Emergency  Food  Series  21.     Connecticut  Agr.  Col- 
lege Extension  Service.    1917. 

8.  Cucumbers.    L.  C.  Corbett.    Farmers'  Bui.  254.    U.  S. 
D.  A.    1917. 


266  APPENDIX 

9.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Fermentation  and  Salting. 
L.  A.  Round  and  H.  L.  Lang.  U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers' 
Bui.  881.  1917. 

10.  Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Salting.    W.  V.  Cruess. 

Illustrated  Food    Preservation    Leaflet.    University 
California  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

11.  Preserving  Vegetables  by  Fermentation.     Form  A-90. 
States  Relation  Service  Office  of  Extension  Work 
South.    U.  S.  D.  A.    1917. 

12.  Making  Sauerkraut.    A.  T.  Erwin.    Iowa  State  Col- 
lege Agr.  Emergency  Leaflet  24.    1917. 

13.  Pickles.     Gladys  L.  Meloche.     Rhode  Island  State 

College.    1917. 

14.  Pickles.     Extension  Division  New  Jersey  Agr.  Col- 

lege.   1917. 

15.  Manual  for  Home  Storage,  Pickling,  Fermentation  and 
Salting   of   Vegetables.      National    Emergency   Food 
Garden  Commission.    Bui.  1917.    210-220  Maryland 
Bldg.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

16.  Home  Pickling  of  Ripe  Olives.    F.  T.  Bioletti.    Uni- 

versity California  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

Meat  Preservation 

1.  Meat  on  the  Farm.    Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping. 

Andrew  Boss.     Farmers'   Bui.    183.     U.   S.   D.   A. 
1906. 

2.  Preservation  of  Meat.     Extension  Bui.  12,  North  Da- 

kota Expt.  Station.    1917. 

3.  A  Meat  Curing  Contest  for  North  Carolina  Pig  Club 

Members  and  Curing  Meat  at  Home.    Extension  Cir- 
cular 58.    North  Carolina  Expt.  Station.    1917. 

4.  Method  of  Preparing  and  Curing  Dried  Beef.    Mrs.  Levi 

Dodge.    Leaflet,  North  Dakota  Expt.  Station,  Feb., 
1917. 

5.  Killing  Hogs  and  Curing  Pork.    F.  G.  Ashbrook  and 

G.  A.  Anthony.    Farmers'  Bui.  913.    U.  S.  D.  A. 


APPENDIX  267 

Cheese  Making 

1.  Extension  Bui.  47.     University  Nebraska  Expt.  Sta- 

tion. Farm  Cheese  Making.  J.  H.  Fraudsen  and  T. 
Thorson.  1917. 

2.  Studies  on  the  Factors  Concerned  in  the  Ripening  of 

Cheddar  Cheese.  E.  G.  Hastings,  Alice  Evans,  and 
E.  B.  Hart.  Research  Bui.  25,  University  Wisconsin. 
1912. 

3.  Farm  Cheese  Making.     Extension   Circular  30,   Uni- 

versity Missouri  Expt.  Station.    L.  G.  Runkle. 

4.  The  Manufacture  of  Cottage  Cheese  in  Creameries  and 

Milk  Plants.  A.  O.  Dahlberg.  U.  S.  D.  A.  Dept. 
Bui.  576.  1917. 

5.  Farm  Dairy  Cheese.    R.  M.  Washburn.    Special  Bui.  12C 

Agr.  Extension  Service,  University  of  Minnesotac 
1917. 


INDEX 


Acid,  addition  to  brine  in  vegeta- 
ble canning,  49. 

necessity  of,  in  jelly  making,  80. 
test  for  jelly  making,  80. 
Acid,  acetic,  formation  in  vinegar, 

116. 
fermentation,     control     of,     in 

vinegar  making,  120-124. 
test  for  vinegar,  124. 
Acid,  lactic,  formation  of,  in  veg- 
etable preservation,  132. 
fermentation    as    a    means    of 

preservation,  132. 
Air,  relation  to  spoiling,  12. 
effect  of  in  pickling  olives,  138. 
exclusion   of,    in   pickling,    132, 

228-231. 

necessity  of,  in  vinegar  fermen- 
tation, 121. 

Alcohol,  antiseptic  value  of,  17. 
fermentation  in  fruit  wines,  127, 

225. 
fermentation  in  vinegar  making, 

118,  222. 

Antiseptics,  in  permanent  preser- 
vation, 14. 

in  temporary  preservation,  10. 
Apple,  butter,  general  principles, 

87. 

butter,  recipe,  202. 
canning,  165. 
cider,  hard,  129,  226. 
cores,  and  skins,  using,  223. 
drying  recipes,  211,  216. 
jelly  recipe,  198. 
jelly  stock,  85  200. 
juice,  recipe,  185. 
peeling  machine,  26. 
Apple  sirup,  recipe,  192. 

vinegar,  116-124,  222-225. 
Apricot  canning  recipe,  162. 
candying,  90,  208. 


Apricot  drying,  general,  93-112. 

drying  recipes,  211,  216. 

jam,  202. 
Artichokes,  canning  recipe,  171.   ^ 

preservation  in  brine,  228. 
Asepsis  as  a  means  of  food  preser- 
vation, 9. 
Asparagus,  canning  recipe,  172. 

preservation  in  brine,  228. 
Aspergillus  mold,  4. 

Bacillus  botulinus,   poisoning  by, 

58. 
Bacon,  brine  treatment,  245. 

dry  salting,  245. 

smoking  recipe,  248. 

smoke  house,  illustration,  146. 
Bacteria,  lactic  fermentation,  132. 

in  canned  foods,  58. 

in  meats,  59. 

in  vegetable  preservation,  132. 

in  vinegar  making,  116,  120. 

in  milk  products,  150-154. 

types  of,  6. 

Bag  filter,  illustration,  64. 
Balling  tester  for  jelly  and  sirups, 

82. 
Barrel  for  curing  meats,  243. 

for  vinegar  making,  illustration, 

121. 
Barrel   for  preserving   vegetables, 

illustration,  133. 

Beans,   botulinus  poisoning  from, 
58. 

canning  recipe,  173. 

dried,  canning  recipe,  179. 

drying  recipe,  218. 

fermentation,  132,  229. 
Beef,    brine    for    preserving,    144, 
244. 

corned,  recipe,  244. 

dried,  recipe,  248. 


269 


270 


INDEX 


Beets,  canning  recipe,  173. 

drying  recipe,  219-220. 

fermentation  of,  132,  229. 

peeling,  173. 
Berries,  canning  recipes,  167-168. 

drying  recipes,  216. 

preserving,  89,  205. 
Blackberry,  canning,  168. 

drying,  216. 

jam,  87,  202. 

jelly-making,  198-200. 

juice  recipe,  188. 
Blanching,  purpose  of,  46. 

vegetables,  46. 

vegetables,  illustration,  30. 
Boiled  cider,  72-76,  192-194. 
Bottles,  capping,  67. 

corking,  67. 

filling,  66. 

pasteurizing  or  sterilizing,  6S. 
Bottling  fruit  juices,  66,  185-1C1. 
Bottling,  jelly  stocks,  200. 

vinegar,  125,  223. 

wine,  130,  226. 
Brine,  acidified  for  vegetables,  48. 

for  beef,  244. 

for  butter,  255. 

for  cucumbers,  134;  230. 

for  fish,  recipe,  246. 

for  pork,  recipe,  243. 

for  olives,  240,  241. 

for  vegetables,  133,  226. 

for  canning  vegetables,  48. 
Butter,    fruit,    general   discussion, 
87-89. 

fruit,  recipes,  203. 

preservation  in  brine  or  salt,  255. 

Cabbage,  drying  recipe,  219,  220. 

fermentation     for     sauerkraut, 

228. 

Candied  fruits,  general  discussion, 
90. 

recipes,  208. 
Canned  foods,  importance  of,  v. 

spoiling  of,  57-59. 
Canners,  factory  made,  51. 

steam  pressure,  51. 
Canning,  equipment,  21-54. 

fruits,  general  discussion,  21-44. 


Canning  fruits,  recipes,  157-171. 

meats,  general  discussion,  55-57. 

meats,  recipes,  182-184. 

outfits,  factory-made,  51. 

vegetables,    general    discussion, 
45-54. 

vegetables,  recipes,  171-182. 
Cans,  sanitary,  32. 

sealing,  29. 

solder  top,  28,  158-161. 

spoiled,  appearance  of,  illustra- 
tion, 58. 

types  of,  illustration,  27. 
Capping  bottles,  66. 

machine  for  bottles,  illustration, 

67. 
Caps  for  glass  jars,  25. 

for  bottles,  67. 
Carrots,  canning  recipe,  174. 

drying  recipe,  219,  220. 
Cauliflower,  pickling,  231. 

preservation  in  brine,  228. 
Celery,  drying,  220. 
Chalk,      precipitated,      for      fruit 

sirups,  73,  193. 

Cheese,   Cheddar,   general  discus- 
sion, 153. 

Cottage,  recipe,  254. 

Gouda,  recipe,  251. 
Chemical  preservatives,  10,  14. 
Cherries,  canning,  164. 

candying,  208-210. 

drying,  215,  216. 

pitting,  24. 

pitter  (illustration),  25. 
Chili  peppers,  canning,  176. 

drying,  220. 
Chili  sauce,  recipe,  235. 
Chow  chow,  recipe,  233. 
Chutney,  recipe,  237. 
Cider,  hard,  recipe,  226. 

sweet,  recipe,  185. 
Citron,  candying,  90-92,  208-210. 
Clarification  of  fruit  juices,  recipe, 
64,  190. 

of  vinegar,  recipe,  223. 
Clarifying  materials,  64,  190,  223. 
Cleanliness  as  aid  to  preservation, 

9. 
Cold  storage,  9. 


INDEX 


271 


Concentration    of    sirups,    73-75, 

192-198. 
Conserves,  general  discussion,  89. 

recipes,  205-207. 

Containers   for   canned    products, 
25-29. 

for  juices,  66. 

for  vinegar,  223. 

for  wine,  128. 
Cooker,  pressure,  illustration,  48. 

pressure,  description,  50-52. 
Cooling  cans  after  sterilizing,  52. 
Corking  bottles  of  juice,  66,  185. 
Corn,  canning  recipe,  174. 

drying  recipe,  219,  220. 
Crabapple  jelly,  recipe,  198. 
Cranberry  jelly,  198. 
Crusher  for  fruits,  for  home  use, 
illustration,  61. 

for  farm  use,  illustration,  63. 
Cucumber,  dill  pickle  recipe,  230. 

relishes,  recipes,  234-239. 

sweet  pickles,  recipe,  232. 

vinegar  pickles,  recipe,  231. 
Currant  jelly  recipe,  198. 

jelly  stock,  200. 

Dill  pickles,  recipe,  230. 
Dixie  relish,  recipe,  236. 
Driers  for  home  use,  105. 

for  farm  use,  104-109. 

illustrations,  105,  106,  107. 
Drying   fruit,    general    discussion, 
93-112. 

recipes,  211-217. 
Drying  meats,  recipes,  248,  250. 
Drying    vegetables,     general    dis- 
cussion, 112-116. 

recipes,  217-221. 

Eggs,    preservation   in   brine   and 

salt,  250. 

preservation  in  waterglass,  149, 
250. 

Evaporating,  104-109. 

Evaporators,  1041109. 

Exclusion  of  air  as  means  of  preser- 
vation, 12,  17. 

Exhausting,  theory  and  discussion, 
40. 


Fermentation,    alcoholic,    in   fruit 

wines,  127,  225. 
alcoholic,    in    vinegar    making, 

118-120,  222. 
lactic,  in  vegetable  preservation, 

132,  228-231. 
lactic,  in  milk,  153. 
vinegar,  120,  223. 
Figs,      candying       recipe,      208- 

210. 

canning  recipe,  166. 
drying,  general,  93-112. 
drying  recipe,  215. 
jam,  202. 

preserves,  recipe,  205. 
sweet  pickle,  232. 
Filtration,      of   fruit    juices,     66, 

185. 

of  jelly  material,  79. 
of  vinegar,  125,  223. 
Fire    pot,    for    heating    soldering 

steels,  illustration,  33. 
Fish,  canning,  general,  55-57. 
canning  recipe,  183. 
drying  recipe,  249. 
salting  recipe,  246. 
smoking  recipe,  248. 
Flux,     soldering,     directions     for 

making,  259. 

Food,  canning,  21-60,  157-185. 
causes  of  spoiling,  3-9. 
drying,  93-116,  211-222. 
permanent  preservation,  theory 

of,  12-19. 
temporary  preservation,  theory 

of,  9-12. 

Food  poisoning,  57. 
Fruits,     butters,    and    jams,     87, 

202. 

candying,  90,  208. 
canning,  21-44,  157-171. 
drying,  general,  93-116. 
drying,  recipes,  211-218. 
jellies  and  jelly,  stocks,   76-86, 

198-202. 

juices,  60-72,  185-192. 
picking  for  canning,  drying,  etc., 

21. 

preserving,  89,  205. 
sirups,  72-76,  192. 


272 


INDEX 


Germs,  in  relation  to  spoiling,  3-9, 

57. 

Glass  jars,  25. 

Gooseberries,  canning  recipe,  170. 
Grading  fruits  and  vegetables,  23. 
Greens,  canning  recipe,  177. 
Grape,  jelly,  198. 

juice,  general  discussion,  60-71. 

juice,  recipes,  186. 

sirup,  71,  192. 
Grapes,  canning,  169. 

drying  recipes,  214. 
Grape  fruit,  jelly,  198. 

juice,  60-71,  189. 

marmalade,  201. 
Guava  jelly,  198. 

Ham,  recipes  for  salting,  243,  245. 

recipe  for  smoking,  248. 
Home     canning     outfits     factory- 
made,  51. 
home-made,  41. 
Home  dryers,  104-108. 
Hominy,    recipe   for   making   and 

canning,  179. 
Hydraulic  presses,  63. 

Intermittent  sterilization,  52. 

Jams,  general  discussion,  87. 

recipes,  202. 
Jars,  closing,  illustration,  46. 

filling  with  hot  fruit,  illustration, 
31. 

filling  with    sirup  or    brine,   il- 
lustration, 32. 

types  of,  illustration,  25. 

washboiler     sterilizer,     illustra- 
tion, 32. 
Jar  rubbers,  2Q. 
Jellies,  acid  t(»t,  80. 

clearing  juice  for,  79. 

cooking  the  fruit,  77. 

crystallization  of,  85. 

fruits  for  jelly,  76. 

hydrometer  test,  82. 

pectin  test,  79. 

pectin  test,  illustration,  76. 

recipes,  198-202 

sealing  with  paraffin,  83. 


Jellies,  sheeting  test,  81. 

sterilizing,  84. 

thermometer  test,  81. 
Jelly  stocks,  general,  85. 

recipes,  200. 
Juices,  fruit,  bottling,  66. 

clarifying,  64,  190. 

filtering,  64. 

fruits,  suitable  for,  60. 

general  discussion,  60-72. 

pasteurizing,  68. 

pasteurizing,  illustration,  68. 

recipes,  185-191. 

sealing  bottles,  illustration,  70. 

Ketchup,  cooking,  141,  233. 
general  discussion,  141. 
recipe,  238. 

spices,  addition  of,  238. 
sterilizing,  239. 

Labelling,  canned  foods,  34,  259. 
Legal  standard  for  vinegar,  259. 
Lemon,  candied  peel,  101,  208. 
jelly,  77,  198. 
juice,  188. 
marmalade,     with     orangey     or 

grape  fruit,  201. 
Lemon  juice  method   of   canning 

vegetables,  48. 
Lima  beans,  canning,  179. 
Lime  and   lime  carbonate,    use  in 

sirups,  72,  193. 
Lye,  for  hominy,  179. 

for  pickling  olives,  240,  241. 
for  peeling  peaches  and  apricots, 
163. 

Machine,    apple   peeling,    illustra- 
tion, 26,  212. 

bottle  capping,  illustration,  67. 

can  sealing,  illustration,  35,  3S. 

slicing,  for  vegetables,  220. 

vegetable  peeling,  104. 
Marmalade,  fruit  recipe,  201. 

orange,  recipe,  201. 

from  other  fruits,  201. 

slicer,  illustration,  86. 
Marmalades,    general    discussion, 
85. 


INDEX 


273 


Marmalades,  recipes,  201. 
Meats,  canning,  general  discussion, 
55-57. 

canning,  recipes,  143-150. 

drying,  248,  250. 

preservation  of,  general  discus- 
sion, 143-150. 

preservation    of,    recipes,    243- 

250. 
Meats,  salting,  general,  143-145. 

salting,  recipes,  243-247. 

smoking,  general,  145-148. 

smoking,  recipes,  247-250. 
Mixed  pickles,  recipe,  234. 
Moisture,  exclusion  of,  10. 
Molds,  in  relation  to  spoiling,  3-5. 

destruction  of,  by  heat,  4. 

growth  on  jelly  and  fruit,  4. 
Mother  of  vinegar,  use  in  vinegar 

making,  120. 
Mustard  pickles,  recipe  for,   234. 

Okra,  canning  recipe  for,    ISO. 
Olives,    brine  for   canning,   recipe 
for,  241. 

brine  for  green,  recipe  for,  241. 

canning,  139,  241. 

coloring,  by  exposure  to  air,  137. 

green,  pickling  recipe  for,  241. 

first  lye  treatment  of,  137. 

second  lye  treatment  of,  138. 

ripe,  pickling  recipe  for,  240. 

sterilizing,  139,  241. 

vats,  in  large  factory,  illustra- 
tion, 137,  138. 

washing  out  excess  lye  of,  138. 
Onions,  drying,  recipe  for,  219. 

pickling,  recipe  for,  231. 
Orange,  candying  peel  of,  208. 

canning  recipe  for,  168. 

jelly  recipe  for,  198. 

juice  recipe  for,  189. 
Orange-Lemon,  marmalade,  201. 

juice,  189. 
Organisms  and  spoiling,  3-9. 

Paraffin,   use  of,   in  sealing  jelly, 

83,  200. 

use  of,  in  sealing  salted  vegeta- 
bles, 132,  228-230. 


Parsnips,  canning,  174. 

drying,  220. 
Paste,  fruit,  88,  203. 

tomato,  recipe  for,  239. 
Pasteurization,  general,  11. 

of  fruit  juices,  68. 

of  milk,  150. 

Pasteurizer  for  fruit  juices,  68. 
Peach  butter,  recipe  for,  202. 

paste,  203. 

preserves,  205. 
Peaches,  candying,  recipes  for,  208. 

canning,  general,  21-44. 

canning  recipes  for,  157. 

drying  recipes  for,  211,  216. 

lye  peeling,  163. 

pickling  recipe  for,  232. 

pitting  clingstone,  23. 
Peas,  canning  recipe  for,  175. 

drying,  218. 

sterilizing  canned,  50,  175. 

sterilizing  sun  dried,  115. 
Pears,  candying,  90,  208. 

canning,  recipe  for,  163. 

drying,  211. 

Pears,  sweet  pickling,  recipe  for, 
232. 

for  vinegar,  116. 

Pectin   content  in  various  fruits, 
table,  77. 

importance  of,  in  jelly,  77. 

testing,  in  jelly  making,  79. 
Peeling,  fruits,  23. 

lye,  method,  163. 

peppers    and    pimentos,    recipe 
for,  176. 

vegetables,  45. 

Penicillium  mold  (blue  mold),  3. 
Peppers,  canning,  176. 

drying,  recipe  for,  220. 

peeling,  176. 
Picking  fruits  for  canning,  21. 

fruits  for  drying,  94. 

vegetables  for  canning,  45. 
Pickling,    fruits    and    vegetables, 
general,  131-143. 

fruits    and    vegetables,    recipes 

for,  231-243. 
Pimento  canning,  176. 

peeling,  for  canning,  176. 


274 


INDEX 


Pineapple,  candying  recipe,  208. 

canning,  170. 

juice,  190. 

Plums,  canning,  165. 
Pork,  brines  for  preserving,  recipes 
for,  243,  245. 

dry  salting,  recipe  for,  245. 

salting    and    smoking,    general, 
143-149. 

smoking,  recipe  for,  248. 

storing  cured,  148. 
Poultry,  canning,  recipes  for,  182. 
Preservation  of  foods,  theory  of, 
9-18. 

general  discussion  of,  18-157. 

recipes  for,  157-257. 
Preservatives,  10,  14. 
Preserves,  general,  89. 

recipes  for,  205-208. 
Press,  fruit,  illustrations,  02,  63. 
Pressing  fruits,  63. 

sorghum,  194. 

Processing,  canned  foods,  41,  50. 
Prunes,  dipping,  for  drying,  illus- 
tration, 96,  97. 

drying,  recipe  for,  213. 

lye  solution  for  dipping,  214. 

picking,  for  drying,  illustration, 

94. 
Pumpkin,  canning,  176. 

drying,  219. 

Quince  jelly,  76,  198. 

preserves,  recipe  for,  205. 

Raspberries,    canning,    recipe   for, 
168. 

drying,  recipe  for,  216. 

preserving,  89,  205. 
Relishes,  recipes  for,  233-230. 
Retorts,  description  of,  50. 
Retort,  illustration,  48. 
Rhubarb,  canning,  without  steril- 
ization, 166. 

sterilizing,  recipe  for,  166. 
Rubbers,  jar,  26. 

Saccharometers,  description  of,  37. 
use  of,  in  jelly  making,  82. 
use  of,  in  sirup  making,  74. 


Salmon,  canning  recipe  for,  183. 
drying  recipe  for,  249. 
salting  recipe  for,  246. 
smoking  recipe  for,  248. 
Salt,  as  a  preservative,  general,  11. 
brines  for  vegetables,  132-134. 
brines    for    meats,    recipes    for, 

243-246. 
brines    for    olives,    recipes    for, 

240-242. 
Salting,  meats,  245. 

vegetables,  general,  131-135. 
vegetables,  recipes  for,  227-231. 
Saltpetre,  use  of,  in  meat  preser- 
vation, 144. 
Sanitary  cans,  32. 
Sauerkraut,  general  discussion  of, 

132. 

recipe  for,  228. 

Scale  for  home  canning,  illustra- 
tion of,  28. 
Sealing,  bottles,  70. 
cans,  28,  158-161. 
jars,  43. 
Sirup   for  candying  fruits,    recipe 

for,  208. 
apparatus  for  sun  evaporation, 

73. 

for  fruit  canning,  37. 
hydrometers,  37. 
Sirups,  general  discussion  of,  72- 

76. 

recipes  for,  192-198. 
Slicing  apples,  95. 

machine    for    vegetables,    illus- 
tration of,  220. 
Smokehouse,  description  of,  146. 

illustration  of,  146. 
Smoking  beef,  recipe  for,  248. 

fish,  248. 
Smoking,    general    discussion    of, 

145-148. 
materials  suitable  for  producing 

smoke,  147. 
pork,  recipe  for,  248. 
recipes  for,  247-250. 
Spices,  for  dill  pickles,  230. 

for  sweet  pickles,  232. 
Spinach,  canning,  recipe  for,  177. 
salting,  227. 


INDEX 


275 


Spoiling  of  food,  general,  3-8. 

of  canned  foods,  57-60. 
Spoiled  food,  poisoning  from  bo- 

tulinus  in,  58. 

Spores,     bacterial,     resistance     to 
heat  of,  6. 

mold,  3-5. 
Squash,  canning  recipe  for,  176. 

drying  recipe  for,  219. 
Starters,      vinegar     bacteria     for 
vinegar,  120. 

yeast,  for  vinegar,  118. 

yeast,  for  wines,  127. 
Steam  pressure  sterilizers,  48, 50. 
Steels,  soldering,  use  of,  158-161. 
Sterilization,  general,  13. 

of  canned  fruits,  41. 

of  canned  meats,  56. 

of  canned  vegetables,  50. 

of  fruit  juices,  68. 

of  jellies,  84. 
Sterilizers,  factory-made,  50. 

home-made,  41. 
Storage  of  canned  foods,  57.  ' 
Storage  of  cured  meats,  148. 

of  dried  fruit,  110. 

of  dried  vegetables,  115. 
Straining  fruit  juices,  64. 
Strawberries,   canning,  recipe  for, 
167. 

preserving,  recipe  for,  205. 
String  beans,  canning,  173. 

drying,  218. 

fermentation  of,  recipe  for,  22S. 

salting,  recipe  for,  227. 
Sugar  in  candying  fruits,  90,  208. 

cane,  vs.  beet,  39. 

hydrometers,  37. 

in  canning,  37-40. 

in  jelly  making,  82. 

in  preserves,  89,  207. 

sirups  for  canning,  37. 
Sulphuring  fruits  for  drying,  96. 

vegetables  for  drying,  1 13. 
Sun  drying  fruits,  93-104. 

vegetables,  112-114. 
Sweet  pickles,  recipes  for,  232. 
Sweet    potatoes,    canning,    recipe 
for,  178. 

drying,  recipes  for,  219,  220. 


Table  for  making  canning  sirups, 
39. 

showing  relation  of  steam  pres- 
sure and  temperature,  51. 
Temperature  necessary  for  steril- 
izing fruits,  41. 

necessary  for  fruit  juices,  68. 

necessary  for  meats,  56. 

necessary  for  vegetables,  50. 

of  jelly  at  boiling  point,  82. 

used  in  drying  fruits,  105,  216. 

used  in  drying  vegetables,  220. 
Test,  acid,  in  jelly  making,  80. 

pectin,  in  jelly  making,  79. 
Thermometer,  use  of,  in  jelly  mak- 
ing, 82. 

use  of,  in  making  preserves,  89. 
Tin  cans,  sanitary,  32. 

solder  top,  28. 

wax  top,  26. 

Tipping  solder  top  cans,  160,  161. 
Tomatoes,  canning,  recipe  for,  177. 

drying,  recipe  for,  220. 

ketchup,  recipe  for,  238. 

paste,  239. 

peeling,  177. 

pickling,  recipe  for,  231,  238. 
Turnips,  canning,  recipe  for,  174. 

drying,  recipe  for,  219. 

Utensils,  useful,  in  canning,  28. 

Vacuum  in  canned  foods,  40. 
Vegetables  in  brine,  general,  132- 
134. 

in  brine,  recipes  for,  228-231. 
Vegetables,  canning,  general,  45- 
54. 

canning,  recipes  for,  171-182. 

drying,  general,  112-114. 

drying,  recipes  for,  218-222. 

fermentation  of,  132,  228-231. 

grading  of,  for  canning,  45. 

packing    dried,    illustration    of, 
114. 

peeling,  45,  112. 

salting,  131-134,  227-231. 

spoiling  of  canned,  57. 

sterilizing  canned,  50. 

sterilizing  dried,  115. 


276 


INDEX 


Vinegar,     alcoholic     fermentation 

of,  118-120. 
bacteria  in  vinegar  making,  120- 

124. 

clarifying,  125. 
diseases,  125. 
eels,  126. 

fermentation,  control  of,  121. 
filtering,  125. 
generators,  122. 

generators,  illustrations  of,  122. 
legal  standards  for,  259. 
Leo  acid  tester  for,  illustration 

of,  124. 

"mother,"  120. 
for  pickling,  135,  231-235. 
spiced,  232. 
spoiling,  125. 
vats  used  in  large  factories,  117. 


Washboiler  sterilizer  for  canning, 

41. 
Washboiler  sterilizer  for  sterilizing 

fruit  juices,  68. 
illustration  of,  41. 
Watermelon,    candying    of,    rind, 

recipe  for,  208. 
preserves,  206. 
Wax  top  cans,  26. 
"Wine  flowers,"  125. 
Wines,  fruit,  general,  126-131. 
fruit,  recipes  for,  225. 

Yeast  as  cause  of  spoiling,  5. 
in  making  fruit  wines,  127. 
use  of  in  vinegar,  118. 


Zinc     chloride 
259. 


soldering     fluid, 


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The  Food  Problem 

BY  VERNON   KELLOGG  AND  ALONZO  E.  TAYLOR 

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"  Food  is  always  more  or  less  of  a  problem  in  every  phase  of  its  production, 
handling,  and  consumption.  It  is  a  problem  with  every  farmer,  every  trans- 
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What  is  the  problem  in  detail  ? 

What  are  the  general  conditions  of  its  solution  ? 

What  are  the  immediate  problems  and  particulars  which  concern  us,  and 
are  within  our  power  to  affect  ? 

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TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 
Introduction:  The  International  Problem. 
Part  /.     The  Problem  and  the  Solution. 

Chapter  I.     The  Food  Situation  of  the  Western  Allies  and  the  United  States. 
II.     Food  Administration. 

III.  How  England,  France,  and  Italy  Are  Controlling  and  Saving  Food. 

IV.  Food  Control  in  Germany  and  Its  Lessons. 
Part  II.     The  Technology  of  Food  Use. 

V.    The  Physiology  of  Nutrition. 
VI.    The  Sociology  of  Nutrition. 
VII.    The  Sociology  of  Nutrition  (Continued). 
VIII.    Grain  and  Alcohol. 
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Some  Aspects  of  Food  Economy 

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This  little  book  was  written  in  response  to  a  re- 
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Butter 

BY  E.  S.  GUTHRIE 

Professor  in  the  Dairy  Department,  New  York  State  College  of  Agricul- 
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